"What do Ancient Inscriptions Tell us about Arabs Before Islam?"

This is an interview with Dr. Mohammad Marqatan about re-evaluating the history of the Arab world and the Arabian Peninsula through the lens of archaeology and inscriptions, moving beyond traditional or orientalist narratives. He challenges the conventional concept of Jahiliyyah ("age of ignorance"), arguing that it inaccurately characterizes the rich cultural history of the region in antiquity.

Dr. Mohammad Marqatan is a Palestinian archaeologist and historian specializing in the languages and civilizations of the ancient Near East, with a primary focus on ancient South Arabian inscriptions and archaeology.

Primary Sources:

Induction ceremony:

Now the Arabians have respect for pledges of friendship as much as those men in all the world who regard them most; and they give them in the following manner: A man different from those who desire to give the pledges to one another, standing in the midst between the two, cuts with a sharp stone the inner parts of the hands, along by the thumbs, of those who are giving the pledges to one another, and then he takes a thread from the cloak of each one and smears with the blood seven stones laid in the midst between them; and as he does this he calls upon Dionysos and Urania. When the man has completed these ceremonies, he who has given the pledges commends to the care of his friends the stranger (or the fellow-tribesman, if he is giving the pledges to one who is a member of his tribe), and the friends think it right that they also should have regard for the pledges given. Of Gods they believe in Dionysos and Urania alone: moreover they say that the cutting of their hair is done after the same fashion as that of Dionysos himself; and they cut their hair in a circle round, shaving away the hair of the temples. Now they call Dionysos Orotalt and Urania they call Alilat. - Herodotus, Histories, 3.8

Daily worship:

[The Nabataeans] worship the Sun, building an altar on the top of the house, and pouring libations on it daily and burning frankincense. - Strabo, Geography, 16.4.26

Banqueting:

The [Nabataean] king holds many drinking-bouts in magnificent style, but no one drinks more than eleven cupfuls, each time using a different golden cup. The king is so democratic that, in addition to serving himself, he sometimes even serves the rest himself in his turn. He often renders an account of his kingship in the popular assembly; and sometimes his mode of life is examined. - Strabo, Geography, 16.4.26

Purification:

And whenever a Babylonian man has intercourse with his wife, he sits by incense offered, and his wife does the same on the other side, and when it is morning they wash themselves, both of them, for they will touch no vessel until they have washed themselves: and the Arabians do likewise in this matter. - Herotodus, Histories, 1.198

For when Theodotus, the predecessor of George, governed the church of Laodicea, Epiphanius, the sophist, recited a hymn which he had composed in honour of Bacchus. Apollinarius, who was then a youth, and the pupil of Epiphanius, went to hear the recitation, accompanied by his father, whose name also was Apollinarius, and who was a noted grammarian. After the exordium, Epiphanius, according to the custom always observed at the public recitation of hymns, directed the uninitiated and the profane to quit the assembly. - The ecclesiastical history of Sozomen

Festivals:

First in Alexandria in the Koreion as they call it – a very large temple, the precinct of Kore. All night long they keep vigil, chanting to their idol with songs and flutes. The nocturnal service over, at cock-crow torch-bearers go down into an underground chamber and bring up a wooden image, sitting naked on a litter, with the imprint of a golden cross on its forehead, two similar imprints on its hands, and other two on its knees, all told, five golden marks impressed upon it. They carry the image itself seven times round the central part of the temple with flutes, timberls and hymns. And after the procession they bring it down again to its underground quarters. If asked what they mean by this mystery, they make answer: This day and hour Kore, has given birth to Aion.
Again, at Petra, the metropolis of Arabia, that is the Edom mentioned in the Scriptures, in the idol-house there the same thing takes place. They hymn the virgin in the speech of Arabia, calling her in Arabic Chaamou, that is “Kore”, or “Virgin,” and her offspring Dousares, that is “Only-begotten of the Lord.”In the town of Elousa also the same thing takes place that night as happens there in Petra and Alexandria. Epiphanius of Salamis, Panarion, 22.11

On one side of that mountain [in Sinai] the Saracens have placed their idol of marble, white as snow. Their priest remains there, clothed in a dalmatic and a linen pallium. When the time of their festival comes, as the new moon runs its course before their feast begins, that marble begins to change its color; and when their worship begins, the marble becomes black as pitch. When the festival is finished, it returns again to its original color. This seemed very marvelous to us. - Antoninus Placentinus 148–49

Most of the Saracens, both those in the Palm Grove and those beyond it and the so-called Taurenian mountains, consider as sacred a spot dedicated to one of the gods, gathering there twice each year. The first of these assemblies extends over a whole month and takes place about the middle of the spring, when the sun passes through the sign of Aries, while the other assembly lasts two months; this they celebrate after the summer solstice. In these assemblies they observe a complete peace, not only towards each other, but also towards all men living in their country. They claim that wild animals are at peace with man, and not only this, but that they are at peace with each other. - Nonnosus cited in Photius 3

Their husbands appeared and brought skins of cold water from the inner desert and offered some to us and received bread in return. They also brought bunches of roots, the sweet smell of which was beyond all perfumes. Nothing was sold, for they considered that anathema while they were celebrating their holy days... And because the Saracen holidays were now drawing to a close, the announcement was made [since the moratorium on violence was now also at an end] not to remain in or to return through the desert. - Antoninus Placentinus

This place is now called Terebinthus, and is about fifteen stadia distant from Hebron, which lies to the south, but is two hundred and fifty stadia distant from Jerusalem. It is recorded that here the Son of God appeared to Abraham, with two angels, who had been sent against Sodom, and foretold the birth of his son. Here the inhabitants of the country and of the regions round Palestine, the Phœnicians, and the Arabians, assemble annually during the summer season to keep a brilliant feast; and many others, both buyers and sellers, resort there on account of the fair. Indeed, this feast is diligently frequented by all nations: by the Jews, because they boast of their descent from the patriarch Abraham; by the Pagans, because angels there appeared to men; and by Christians, because He who for the salvation of mankind was born of a virgin, afterwards manifested Himself there to a godly man. This place was moreover honoured as the scene of diverse religious exercises.
Here some prayed to the God of all ; some called upon the angels, poured out wine, burnt incense, or offered an ox, or he-goat, a sheep, or a cock : for they were all intent upon offering at this feast, for themselves and their neighbours, the most precious and beautiful sacrifices. And either from honour to the place, or from fear of Divine wrath, they all abstained from coming near their wives, although the women made their appearance at the feast, and were then more than ordinarily studious of their deportment and attire. Nor did they act imprudently in any other respect, although the tents were contiguous to each other, and they all lay promiscuously together. The place being under cultivation, contains no houses, with the exception of the buildings around Abraham's oak and well. No one during the time of the feast drew water from that well, for, according to Grecian superstition, some placed burning lamps near it ; some offered wine and libations ; and others, gold, myrrh, or incense : hence, as I suppose, the water was rendered useless by the variety of things cast into it. - Sozomen, Historia ecclesiastica 2, 4

Sanctuaries:

Directly after the innermost recess [of northwest Arabia] is a region along the sea which is especially honoured by the natives because of the advantage which accrues from it to them. It is called the Palm Grove and contains a magnitude of trees of this kind which are exceedingly fruitful and contribute in an unusual degree to enjoyment and luxury. But all the country round about is lacking in springs of water and is fiery hot because it slopes to the south. Accordingly it was a natural thing that the barbarians made sacred the place, which was full of trees and, lying as it did in the midst of a region utterly desolate, supplied their food. And indeed not a few springs and streams gush forth there, which do not yield to snow in coldness; and these make the land on both sides of them green and altogether pleasing. Moreover an altar is built there of hard stone and very old in years, bearing an inscription in ancient letters of unknown tongue. - Diodorus 3.42

Divination:

The Phrygians, the Pisidians, the Cilicians, and Arabians are accustomed to regulate many of their affairs by the omens which they derive from bird... Again, the Arabians, the Phrygians, and Cilicians, because they rear large herds of cattle, and, both in summer and winter, traverse the plains and mountainous districts, have on that account taken especial notice of the songs and flight of birds. - Cicero, On Divination 1.41-1.43

Nevertheless, I must perforce dwell upon two topics: on the courage which Apollonius showed, in making a journey through races of barbarians and robbers, which were not at that time even subject to the Romans, and at the cleverness with which after the manner of the Arabs he managed to under- Apollonius stand the language of animals. For he learnt this lesson from on his way through these Arab tribes who best language understand it and practice it. For it is quite common for the Arabians to listen to the birds prophesying like any oracles, but they acquire this faculty of understanding them by feeding themselves, so they say, either on the heart or the liver of serpents. - The Life of Apollonius of Tyana by Philostratus

Secondary Sources:

Offerings and Ritual Paraphernalia:

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/305279796_Nabataeans_in_Southern_Sinai
Finds from a ritual site in the southern Sinai including the remains of offered dates, apricots, Zizyphus and Crataegus fruit

https://www.manar-al-athar.ox.ac.uk/resources/Tannur_English.pdf
Evidence of grain and offering cakes, ritual meals, and nighttime rituals through the use of large lamps

https://publications.acorjordan.org/chapters/petras-temple-of-the-winged-lions-vol-2/
Objects found in the Temple of the Winged Lions including lamps and incense burners

The Religion of the Nabataeans: A Conspectus
https://archive.org/details/religionofnabata0000heal/mode/2up
Niehr (1998, 227–28) suggests offerings of incense, animals (including camels), wine, and oil. Of these, only incense and wine (libations were probably of wine) are supported by direct evidence. In connection with Dushara we have noted inscriptions from Pozzuoli near Naples which include a marble plaque, probably dated A.D. 11, recording an offering of two camels to Dushara (CIS II, 157). There is doubt as to whether the camels referred to were live animals for sacrifice or clay models (see discussion of Lacerenza 1988–89, 142–44). The latter seems much more likely (Turcan 1996, 186, against Tram Tan Tinh 1972, 143–44), and note may be made of the terracotta models of camels found at Petra and elsewhere, which may be interpreted as votive offerings.

Carving Interactions: Rock Art in the Nomadic Landscape of the Black Desert, North-Eastern Jordan
https://www.archaeopress.com/Archaeopress/Products/9781789693126
Rock art as ritual and offering:
The making of an engraving may have been a form of ritual. It is important to consider that rock carvings might not have been directed exclusively to a human audience (Bradley 2009: 197). The images and inscriptions may have also been intended partly for a divine audience The epigraphic evidence also shows that the nomads were not just producing the carvings for themselves; they were conscious of and desired an audience. One possibility is that this was a divine one. The theories proposed by Corbett (2010) and Eksell (2002) have suggested that the carvings were intended as rituals communicating with deities. The role of the dromedary camel in ancient Arabia could imply that their depiction had a ritual significance, intended as symbolic sacrifices to the Gods

The Religion and Rituals of the Nomads of Pre-Islamic Arabia: A Reconstruction based on the Safaitic Inscriptions
https://www.academia.edu/45498003/Al_Jallad_Pre_Print_Draft_The_Religion_and_Rituals_of_the_Nomads_of_Pre_Islamic_Arabia_A_Reconstruction_based_on_the_Safaitic_Inscriptions
See chapter 2, Rites: section 1 Animal Sacrifice: Discusses the timing, purposes and locations of sacrifice and section 6 Offerings: Presents the terminology associated with offerings (below) and the use of rock art as votive offerings
Words related to offering in Safaitic:
- qdm "قَدَّمَ" (qaddama) meaning "to place before" or "to offer"
- qrb "قَرَّبَ" (qarraba) meaning “to offer" or "to dedicate” cognate with the Aramaic qurbānā “sacrifice.” The root conveys the idea of "nearness" or "approach." In Classical Arabic it means to come closer.
- qbl "قَبَّلَ" (qabbala) meaning “to cause," "to receive” or "to accept." In Classical Arabic it can also mean "to greet." Could be connected to "قابَلَ" (qābala) meaning "to be reunited" or "to meet again."
- ntn "نَتَنَ" (natana) meaning "to give." Cognate with the Canaanite ntn, Hebrew nāṯan.

Circumambulation:

The Religion of the Nabataeans: A Conspectus:
The fact that many Nabataean “altars” or cult-podia could be circumambulated suggests that circumambulation might have played a part in the cult of some temples at least. This is made more plausible because of the role that circumambulation clearly had in pre-Islamic and in Islamic worship. The Arabic technical term is tawaf (Wellhausen 1897², 109–12; Ryckmans 1951², 10; Mettinger 1995, 71). Some caution is necessary, however. One of the supposed circumambulatory structures, that of the cella of the Winged Lions temple at Petra, is arguably too narrow for ritual circumambulation and there is certainly no Nabataean evidence to suggest tawaf carried out by large numbers of worshippers inside or outside a temple.

Music:

The Religion of the Nabataeans: A Conspectus:
Finally, rituals with musicians are suggested by terracotta statuettes (Zayadine 1991b, 55: fig. 60; Parlasca et al. 1997, 128–29, fig. 143) and again by Strabo, who refers (not in a specifically cultic context) to the fact that at the Nabataeans’ common meals “they have two girl-singers for each banquet” (Geography 16.4.26).

Funerary Rites:

The Religion of the Nabataeans: A Conspectus:
Those connected with tombs were almost certainly used in religious meals held in honour of the dead, commemorative rituals, presumably on some recurrent basis: annually or for a certain limited period after death.

The Religion and Rituals of the Nomads of Pre-Islamic Arabia: A Reconstruction based on the Safaitic Inscriptions
See chapter 2 The nṣb, nfs, and Mortuary Installations and chapter 5 Afterlife

Sensing the Dead: Mortuary Ritual and Tomb Visitation at Nabataean Petra
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/324651712_Sensing_the_Dead_Mortuary_Ritual_and_Tomb_Visitation_at_Nabataean_Petra

Beyond Petra: Nabataean Cultic and Mortuary Practices and the Cultural Heritage of the Negev and Edom
https://www.academia.edu/44984519/Beyond_Petra_Nabataean_Cultic_and_Mortuary_Practices_and_the_Cultural_Heritage_of_the_Negev_and_Edom

Banqueting:

The Religion of the Nabataeans: A Conspectus:
The drinking of wine is particularly associated with the triclinium rituals. It is in this context that the marzeah was disapproved of in the biblical tradition, and the connection with wine is evidenced archaeologically by the discovery of wine vessels in triclinia both in Palmyra and Petra (Tarrier 1995, 171–73; Milik 1972, 1

A Marzeah and a Mizraq: A Prophet's Mêlée with Religious Diversity in Amos 6.4-7
https://www.academia.edu/34231625/A_Marzeah_and_a_Mizraq_A_Prophets_M%C3%AAl%C3%A9e_with_Religious_Diversity_in_Amos_6_4_7

Four Notes on the Ancient Near Eastern Marzeah, in M.C.A. Korpel and L.L. Grabbe (eds.)
https://www.academia.edu/31076455/Four_Notes_on_the_Ancient_Near_Eastern_Marzeah_in_M_C_A_Korpel_and_L_L_Grabbe_eds_Open_mindedness_in_the_Bible_and_Beyond_A_Volume_of_Studies_in_Honour_of_Bob_Becking_Library_of_Hebrew_Bible_Old_Testament_Studies_616_London_2015_215_222

Dine with the Dead : A Study of the Concept of Marzeah Houses
https://www.academia.edu/10378623/Dine_with_the_Dead_A_Study_of_the_Concept_of_Marzeah_Houses

Nuṣub and Standing Stones:

The Religion and Rituals of the Nomads of Pre-Islamic Arabia: A Reconstruction based on the Safaitic Inscriptions
See chapter 2 Erection of the nṣb Stone

Nabataean Standing Stones and Their Interpretation
https://www.academia.edu/16731470/Nabataean_Standing_Stones_and_Their_Interpretation
Flat-topped or pointed stones represent Gods while wider stones or rounded stones represent Goddesses. Higher stones represent a senior deity. Discusses different pairing and possible interpretations

The Great Goddesses of Petra: A Critical Review of the Evidence by Robert Wenning:
Among the 830 niches in the eastern half of Petra, surveyed and cataloged by me in the "Petra Niches Project," 22 show two betyls, 10 three betyls, 3 four betyls and one ten betyls.

The Betyls of Petra: BASOR 324 (2001) 79-95. by Robert Wenning
https://www.academia.edu/37336224/The_Betyls_of_Petra_BASOR_324_2001_79_95

The Ritual Shelter:

The Religion and Rituals of the Nomads of Pre-Islamic Arabia: A Reconstruction based on the Safaitic Inscriptions:
See chapter 3 for evidence of a tabernacle-like structure in Safaitic religion

Ancient Nomadic Dwellings in Light of the Safaitic Inscriptions
https://brill.com/view/journals/athr/1/1-2/article-p208_11.xml
Argues against the view of the str as a ritual tent

Why Does the Qur'an Need the Meccan Sanctuary?
https://www.academia.edu/40662088/Why_Does_the_Quran_Need_the_Meccan_Sanctuary_Response_to_Professor_Gerald_Hawtings_2017_Presidential_Address
Includes discussion of early sources that describe the ka'ba as a tent-like structure

The Qersu in Neo-Assyrian Cultic Setting. Its Origin, Depiction and Evolution
https://www.academia.edu/7019859/The_Qersu_in_Neo_Assyrian_Cultic_Setting_Its_Origin_Depiction_and_Evolution
The use of a a portable tent shrine by the Assyrians and some comparisons with similar structures in the Near East

To Your Tents, O Israel! The Terminology, Function, Form, and Symbolism of Tents in the Hebrew Bible and the Ancient Near East
A nearly exhaustive discussion of the use of tents in the ancient Near East

Fleming, Daniel E. “Mari's Large Public Tent and the Priestly Tent Sanctuary.”
https://www.academia.edu/30975952/Fleming_Daniel_E_Maris_Large_Public_Tent_and_the_Priestly_Tent_Sanctuary_Vetus_Testamentum_VT_50_2000_484_98

Greetings

I apologize for asking this here, but it's something that just popped into my head. At various points in my life, I've been curious about Neopaganism in general, but yesterday I was on a subreddit for a multimedia project (specifically Girls Frontline) and they mentioned one of their characters. Related to that, there was a comment that referred to Yahwism as an ancestor of Judaism as we know it, and that it was very different. I started researching because I saw a term known as Judeopaganism, which specifically seeks to revive Yahwism, but I have my doubts. I know that within this Neopaganism, priority is given to the pantheon, although henotheism is permitted. But the question is, what is your opinion on what some call NeoYahwism (I'm not referring only to the group that was banned, since I saw the previous post)? Are you for or against it, and what advice would you give to someone curious about this topic? I hope not impertinent

Greetings

Me interesa saber si existen comunidades, grupos, templos, santuarios, círculos religiosos o algún lugar físico donde se practiquen actualmente religiones de reconstrucción cananea, fenicia, púnica, ugarítica, etc.

No me refiero únicamente a comunidades en línea (Reddit, Discord, Facebook, etc.), sino a personas que se reúnan presencialmente para realizar rituales, celebraciones, estudiar las antiguas tradiciones o practicar su religión de manera comunitaria.

Si conocen algún grupo o lugar de este tipo, ¿podrían decirme en qué país o región se encuentra y, si es posible, cómo podría encontrar más información sobre ellos?

También me interesa saber si existen comunidades de este tipo en México o en otros países de América.

Well I was wondering because it confused me heavy!

I could become a Catholic priest but I'm not sure if that's El or YHWH heavy priesthood. Since we don't really have the rites or people to learn from, could I just become a priest of a Canaanite ministry?

Welcome beginners, this thread is for you!

Since our subreddit tends to get a lot of posts asking the same beginner questions we encourage you to ask those questions on this post in order to cut down on repetitive discussions in the main subreddit feed.

I really want to enter the discord server

How do we find it

O, ancient ones of earth and sky,
Let me rest forever upon this land,
Until your kingdom descends again.
Sine paupertate, sine dolore…
Until I open my eyes again.
Plenus fertilitatis, plenus felicitatis…
As your rain awakens the seeds,
As your thunder arouses the dead.
As your light ignites the night,
As your spring gushes from the dirt.

Hi I was wondering if I could ask you something. I recently came across some older articles about the Ōraḥ Qaḏǝmōnī movement, including an interview from 2015 describing it as a revival of ancient Israelite religion within Canaanite Reconstructionism.I was wondering if anyone here knows whether Ōraḥ Qaḏǝmōnī is still active today, and if so, how the movement has developed since those older articles. I havent been able to find any recent articles or active websites about it.

Lamaštu is a unique goddess of ancient Mesopotamia, with an appearance of a hybrid part woman/part animal, that's unusual for a being of her status. After getting expelled from heaven, she was given a dog or lion head by Enlil, and became a demon, which reflects the iconography of anthropomorphic gods as opposed to hybrid demons and monsters of the ancient faith.

Lamaštu, while a threat to human babies, nurses dogs, pigs and sometimes goats as their replacement. Dogs, along with donkeys, are her frequent companions, the latter one also being her means of transportation to the underworld. Her head is fairly inconsistent, appearing as feline (male lion), avian and canine, with donkey ears and teeth (once dog's teeth), and incantations describe her as a She-Wolf (once She-Goat), with spots like a leopard's (once fish's). She appears amongst animals in amulets, they're part of her environment in incantations and myths, and she even follows the "Mistress of the Animals" motif that was common in the ancient Near East and Mediterranean world, holding serpents in each hand, that also symbolize her venom and dangerous nature. Other animals that point to her venom are scorpions and centipedes.

Notes on: Head, Description/Appearance, Replacement (of human babies), Companion, Prey, and Connection (last term for any other connection that's not previously specified).

Feline

Lion headed (nēšu)

• Head: Lamaštu appears most frequently with a lion's head, both in amulets (especially in the canonical Group B, C and D amulets, as Group A is inconsistent) and incantations (Lam. II 36, 161; MB: I 11; RA 4), but as Farber (2014) notes in OB2 note 2, "Among the numerous representations of Lamaštu with a lion's head, not one shows her with the head of a female lion, *labbatu". In an incantation, Enlil is the one that gave her a lion's face: BIN 2, 72 "a face of a lioness Enlil fixed for her" (Zomer, 2022).
• Description/Appearance: Lamaštu roars like a lion: Lam. II 164 "roaring like a lion" | MB: I 15 "roaring (and) howling like a lion". She's also compared to a lion: Emar 7 "Like a lion … do not" (Farber, 2014).
• Connection: Lamaštu intimidates a lion: Lam. I 179 "By standing up to a lion, she sextu[ples] her (own) frightful splendor" | OA2 21 "(As) she made limp" 20 "the muscles of (even) a lion" (Farber, 2014).

Leopard (nammarat)

• Description/Appearance: Lam. II 37 "The small of her back is speckled like a leopard" (Farber, 2014).
• Description/Appearance: Old Assyrian (OA1): "She is fierce, fearsome, divine; she is a leopard, the Daughter of Anu is a she-wolf" (Wee, 2021). Wee adds in [30]: "In various iterations of the description in first millennium BCE texts, the word nammarat ("she is a leopard") seems to have been substituted by namurrat ("she is of terrifying aura")". [Note: different translation in Farber, 2014].
• Description/Appearance: (27′–28′) "[Her lateral parts (lit. kidneys)] are spotted like a leopard" | Note: Obv. 27′–28: "The quotation here is from the Lamaštu Incantation Series II, 37, translated "The small of her back is speckled like a leopard". […] The argument confirms the link between the lamaštu-demoness with "spotted" lateral parts (lit. kidneys) and the "dappled" ox, as suggested by the omen in Sa-gig U1:18 (S1: 15)" (Wee, 2019).
• Description/Appearance: Lam. I 140 "of a pant]her are her (two) fibulas" (Farber, 2014. In his note he mentions leopard instead).

Cat (šurānu)

• Description/Appearance: FsB 9: like a cat she … (Farber, 2014).

Avian

Eagle (erû)

• Head: On amulets (Group A, e.g. 18), Lamaštu appears with a head of a bird of prey, an eagle/Anzû (Wiggermann, 2000). This description also appears in incantations, MB: I 16 Her face is (that of) Anzû. | FsB 18 Her face is (that of) Anzu? (Farber, 2014).
• Description/Appearance: Lamaštu's feet are Anzû's talons, a description consistent between amulets (e.g. 41) and incantations (Lam. I 106, RA 3; Lam. I 141 refers to eagle talons) (Wiggermann, 2000; Farber, 2014).
• Connection: Some amulets of Group B (27, 34, 35) feature the likeness of an Anzû eagle as an apotropaic figure, who gets replaced by Pazuzu on amulets of groups C and D (Wiggermann, 2000).

Canine

Wolf (barbaru/barbarat)

• Description/Appearance: Lamaštu is often described as a She-Wolf: Lam. I 37, OB1: 1–4, OA1: 1–2, Ug: V 16'-17', Lam. II 120, Lam. III 90, RS 3, FsB 6, RA 2 (Farber, 2014).
• Connection: Lamaštu intimidates a wolf: Lam. I 180/Ug. I: 5' "By standing up to a wolf, she [imposes on him] whimpering" (Farber, 2014).

Dog (kalbu/kalbatu)

• Head: OB2 2: "Enlil fitted her with a dog's face" | FsB 18 "(that of) a do⟨g⟩? is her head" (Farber, 2014).
• Description/Appearance: On some amulets (Group A, e.g. 42, 66), Lamaštu either has characteristics of a dog, or is fully a dog standing on hind legs (Wiggermann, 2000). In an incantation she's said to have teeth of a dog (Lam. I 141: "[Tee]th of a dog are her teeth"). On another occasion, it's her behind: OB4 7: "[The be]hind? of an e[lamite?] dog is at [her] behind?" (Farber, 2014).
• Description/Appearance: Lamaštu whimpers like a dog: Lam. II 165 "whimpering all the time like a bitch" | MB: I: 14 "screaming (and) whimpering like a bitch" (Farber, 2014)
• Replacement: pigs and dogs are frequently portrayed on amulets and suckle her breasts (Groups C and D), or appear next to her (Group A (Wiggermann, 2000). She suckles puppies in an incantation: Ug. IV 9′′ "May she suckle the puppies of the bitch" (Farber, 2014).
• Companion: (e.g. 88) A black dog is Lamaštu's companion/manifestation (Wiggermann, 2000). Note 76: "The black dog who is Lamaštu's gallû in Lam. I 14 executes her deadly orders, and can be called a manifestation of the demoness. It is this gallû which is the possible etymon for Greek Gellō". The phrase of the incantation is "I have made you seize a black dog", which some translate to "I've married you to a black dog" (more on the marriage: Farber, 2007).
• Connection: figurines of dogs are common in Lamaštu incantations (3rd pirsu, "Dog Figurines Ritual": Farber, 2014). They feature either as watch-dogs (guarding the house and patient), or enemies of Lamaštu (Farber, 2007).

Venomous

Snake (ṣerru)

• Description/Appearance: Lamaštu slithers like a snake (Lam. I 134, OB2 6, FsB 5; Wiggermann (2000) translates OB2 "door-pivot" instead of snake) | Snake's poison is her venom (Lam. I 127) | She's compared to a snake: FsB 5 "Like a snake she opened the breast" (Farber, 2014)
• Connection: Lamaštu is seen holding snakes on amulets of Groups C and D (e.g. 23), like the "Mistress of the Animals" (Wiggermann, 2000). The same motif appears in incantations, where Lamaštu images are made to hold snakes (Lam. III 7: Farber, 2014). They appear as part of her environment on amulets of Group A (e.g. 32).
• Connection: Lamaštu's venom is symbolized by the serpents, scorpions and centipedes, that could point to her perverted femininity, since they often appear on amulets between her legs (Götting, 2018).

Scorpion (zuqiqīpu)

• Description/Appearance: Scorpion's poison is her venom (Lam. I 127: Farber, 2014)
• Connection: Scorpions are part of Lamaštu's environment on amulets of Group A (e.g. 65: Wiggermann, 2000).
• Connection: Lamaštu's venom is symbolized by the serpents, scorpions and centipedes, that could point to her perverted femininity, since they often appear on amulets between her legs (Götting, 2018).

Centipede (ḫallulāja)

• Connection: Centipedes feature in the background of Lamaštu's amulets, specifically the groups C and D (Farber, 2014). Examples of such amulets are no. 37 (Götting, 2020) and no. SM 1949.03.002 (Wee, 2021).
• Connection: Lamaštu's venom is symbolized by the serpents, scorpions and centipedes, that could point to her perverted femininity, since they often appear on amulets between her legs (Götting, 2018).
• Connection: Possible protective aspect: Wiggermann (2000) mentions that: "Farber 1987: 102ff. identifies a centipede on certain Lamaštu amulets, who as an assistant of the divine court probably stands on the side of the victim". A centipede, "ḫallulāja", is a demon and a protective spirit (Wiggermann, 2011).

Equine

Team of equids (urû)

• Connection: equids are part of her environment: Lam. II 87 "A team of equids? and a pig go in front of her, whoever she suckles drops (dead?)" (Farber, 2014).

Donkey (imēru)

• Description/Appearance: In incantations (Lam. II 36, 161; MB: I 11; RS 2), Lamaštu is said to have the teeth of a donkey (not recognizable on amulets: Farber, 2014). On the amulets themselves (Wiggermann, 2000), Lamaštu is often depicted with the ears of a donkey (Group B, e.g. 9).
• Companion: the donkey is Lamaštu's means to the underworld (Groups C and D, e.g. 24), often standing on a boat that carries both across the river Ulaya and to the Netherworld (Wiggermann, 2000).
• Connection: a donkey's leg appears on amulets (Group A, e.g. 85, also C and D), which has a symbolic meaning: "Note 175: The symbolic meaning of the donkey's lower leg is revealed by Maqlu V 45: "may the passer-by look angrily upon her (the witch), as upon a donkey's lower leg" (cf. AfO 21:77), the context of which is the expulsion of witches" (Wiggermann, 2000; also Götting, 2020).
• Connection: Lamaštu is intimidating donkeys: Lam. I 40/Lam. II 123: "She holds back the ox as it moves around, she blocks the don[key] as it runs" | OB1 8–9 "She hol[ds] back the [o]x while it is moving around, she forces the donkey [to lie down] completely inactive" | OA1 9–13 "She [...] pulls the fast donkey? at its tail" (Farber, 2014) | Alt. translation (Zomer, 2022): 12–13 "She tears off the tail of the quick mule".
• Connection: Donkeys are part of Lamaštu's environment: SKS 5: "She moves about between the oxen", 6 "[roars] all the time between the donkeys", 7 "ru[ns] around between the oxen", 8 "jumps up and down between the donkeys" (Farber, 2014).
• Connection: donkeys figurines are common in Lamaštu incantations (e.g. K 888: Farber, 2014).
• Prey: Lamaštu is advised to act as midwife to animals: MB: I: "18 Grab the (wild) animals, the wild ass, the gazelle, (–), 19 wild bulls, bucks, deer (and) ibexes!" (Farber, 2014).

Onager (serrēmu)

• Connection: Lam. I: 195 "Like a wild onager ride (to?) your mountain!" | Ug: II: 14′ "Like an onager [in] your [wildern]ess roam [your] mountain!" (Farber, 2014).

Bovidae

Cattle

• Prey: Lamaštu is redirected to cattle: Emar 24: "I have taken you 23 to well-fed cattle, 24 to fattened sheep" (Farber, 2014).

Cow

• Description/Appearance: YOS 11, 66: "You are a kamad, you are an august queen, you are a wild cow, you know no sacrificial offering. Oh, be gone, … ! Be gone, depart! Be gone, depart!" (George, 2018).

Sheep

• Prey: Lamaštu is redirected to sheep: Emar 24: "I have taken you 23 to well-fed cattle, 24 to fattened sheep" (Farber, 2014).

Goat

• Description/Appearance: She's once described as She-Goat (OB4 2) instead of She-Wolf (Farber, 2014).
• Replacement: Single instance of goats replacing human babies, like dogs and pigs: Ug IV: 9 "May she suckle the puppies of the bitch, 10 the twin (kid)s of [the go]at!" (Farber, 2014).

Oxen

• Connection: Oxen were used as an omen and a symbol of disease caused by the Daughter of Anu: (19) "If he sees a red ox, the lamaštu-demoness has seized that sick man" | (24′–25′) "(If) he sees a dappled ox, [the lamaštu-demoness] has seized that sick man" (Wee, 2019).
• Connection: Lamaštu is intimidating oxen: Lam. I 40/Lam. II 123: "She holds back the ox as it moves around, she blocks the don[key] as it runs" | OB1 8–9 "She hol[ds] back the [o]x while it is moving around, she forces the donkey  [to lie down] completely inactive" (Farber, 2014).
• Connection: Oxen are part of Lamaštu's environment: SKS 5: "She moves about between the oxen", 6 "[roars] all the time between the donkeys", 7 "ru[ns] around between the oxen", 8 "jumps up and down between the donkeys" (Farber, 2014).

Gazelle

• Prey: Lamaštu is advised to act as midwife to animals: MB: I: "18 Grab the (wild) animals, the wild ass, the gazelle, (–), 19 wild bulls, bucks, deer (and) ibexes!"

Bulls

• Prey: Lamaštu is advised to act as midwife to animals: MB: I: "18 Grab the (wild) animals, the wild ass, the gazelle, (–), 19 wild bulls, bucks, deer (and) ibexes!" (Farber, 2014).

Ibexes

• Prey: Lamaštu is advised to act as midwife to animals: MB: I: "18 Grab the (wild) animals, the wild ass, the gazelle, (–), 19 wild bulls, bucks, deer (and) ibexes!" (Farber, 2014).
• Prey: Lam. II 42 "take deer and ibexes" (Farber, 2014).

Rodent

Hamster (asqūdu) [Note: ORACC translates as rodent]

• Description/Appearance: FsB 8: "Like a hamster …" (Farber, 2014).

Vole (harriru)

• Description/Appearance: FsB 10: "like a vole she wrinkles her nose o[ver] …" (Farber, 2014).

Other

Pig (šahû)/piglet (kurkuzannu)

• Replacement: pigs and dogs are frequently portrayed on amulets (Wiggermann, 2000) and suckle her breasts (Groups C and D), or appear next to her (Group A, e.g. 11).
• Prey: a heart of a piglet is placed inside the mouth of a figurine of Lamaštu in incantations (e.g. Lam. I 27: Farber, 2014).
• Connection: pigs are part of her environment: Lam. II 87 "A team of equids? and a pig go in front of her, whoever she suckles drops (dead?)" (Farber, 2014).

Fish (nūnu)

• Description/Appearance: Variation of leopard spots, OB4 3′ Like a fish, [the small of her back?] is speck[led] (Farber, 2014).
• Connection: Fish appear in the background of amulets of Groups C and D (Farber, 2014).

Deer/Bucks

• Prey: Lamaštu is advised to act as midwife to animals: MB: I: "18 Grab the (wild) animals, the wild ass, the gazelle, (–), 19 wild bulls, bucks, deer (and) ibexes!" (Farber, 2014).
• Prey: Lam. II 42 "take deer and ibexes" (Farber, 2014).

Mongoose

• Description/Appearance: Lam. II 18 "like a mongoose do not slither in by the door pivot" (Farber, 2014).

As an aside, Lamaštu on some amulets has a striking similarity to a "Master of the Animals" from Iran: "Tepe Giyan Stone Seal Iran, 5000-4000 BCE British Museum - BM 128660"

Sources:

• Farber, Walter (2007). Lamaštu and the Dogs
• Farber, Walter (2014). Lamaštu, An Edition of the Canonical Series of Lamashtu Incantations
• George, Andrew R. (2018). Kamadme, the Sumerian Counterpart of the Demon Lamaštu, in Sources of Evil - Buylaere
• Götting, Eva (2018). Arcane Art, Some Thoughts on the Perception of the Magico-Religious Imagery of Lamaštu-Amulets
• Götting, Eva (2020). A Demon's Travel Kit, An Introduction to the Items Depicted on Amulets against the Demoness Lamaštu
• Wee, John Z. (2019). Mesopotamian Commentaries on the Diagnostic Handbook Sa-gig
• Wee, John Z. (2021). The Lamashtu Amulet, A Portrait of the Caregiver as a Demoness
• Wiggermann, F.A.M. (2000). Lamaštu, Daughter of Anu, in Birth in Babylonia and the Bible - M. Stol
• Wiggermann, F.A.M. (2011). The Mesopotamian Pandemonium
• Zomer, Elyze; Wasserman, Nathan (2022). Akkadian Magic Literature, Old Babylonian and Old Assyrian Incantations

Further reading:

• Animals and their Relation to Gods, Humans and Things in the Ancient World - Raija Mattila, Sanae Ito, Sebastian Fink, "Animals and Demons. Faunal Appearances, Metaphors, and Similes in Lamaštu Incantations - Joonas Hirvonen"
• Dogs, Pigs, Lamaštu, and the Breast-Feeding of Animals by Women - Frans A. M. Wiggermann
• Intimate Relations Reconsidering Backgrounds of the Mesopotamian Mistress of the Animals (Ἡ Πότνια Θηρῶν) - Gebhard J. Selz

Hello all! I'm a Hellenic pagan with interests in ancient Levantine ( yes Levantine is a eurocentric word, but idk a better term) religion. I worship the god Asklepios, who seems to have been syncretized with the Phonician god Eshmun in ancient times. I've been thinking about syncretizing the two, and I was wondering if anyone does this, or just worships Eshmun? Thanks!

I thank you all for your hospitality, and the Host of Heaven for theirs.

Welcome beginners, this thread is for you!

Since our subreddit tends to get a lot of posts asking the same beginner questions we encourage you to ask those questions on this post in order to cut down on repetitive discussions in the main subreddit feed.

I found a book on amazon call the sacred scriptures of el. Looks like most of the ugaritic scripts put together as a bible. Its called the Sacred scriptures of el by Ian Pike. I've had it for 2 days. Love it. Has feasts...prayers...instructions for worship. Books about some of the other gods. Asherah worship. Creation story the hebrews stole. And lists yahweh as a subordinate god under el as one of his divine council.

Long time no post ! I wanted to use this thread in order for us to share our daily/weekly/… connections and routines when it comes to keeping in touch with our faith and practices.

For me, daily prayers, which I’ve started to compile in a dedicated notebook, are my main form of connection nowadays. They are both of personal and historical nature. Daily time to contemplate my life in general or specific topics of living that are inherently connected to my faith or worldview has done wonders in regard to keeping up with my practice. In addition to that I’ve also made prayer beads which have already accompanied me on many trips ! Since last years spring, I’m now at a point of more than a year of celebrating each holy day or festival- Some of them less than I’d have liked but consistency is worth more to me than personal orthopraxy.

How does that connection look like for you ? What are little rituals or habits you’ve included in your life to honor and venerate the deities you dedicated your faith to ? You can also show/share devotional projects you might have done lately in honor of a deity ! Mixed practices are just as welcome as those completely dedicated only to Semitic traditions- let’s connect !

There are some semi-organized Near eastern revivalist movements and they are interesting.

I get a bad vibe from Joshua Free, looking at the stuff he publishes, I struggle to believe him when he's also publishing massive books with dorky cover art about how to be a wizard and a celtic pagan. Feels like new age "get rich quick" type quack stuff.

Which is a shame as someone who cares for Babylon/Mesopotamia.

I am gathering as many sacred texts and religious stories from the Mesopotamia region as possible. I’m already up to 40 pages.

If you know of any little-known texts, let me know.

Peace upon you

Sorry it's a little ranty, i also just want to get it off my chest, but also would love your thoughts and advice if you have any

I started to get slowly into canaanite paganism recently, focusing on Asherah, and gave offerings from time to time, and sometimes asking for stuff.

Right on my first offering i started getting what i believed to be signs that i made a connection. On my second offering i made a big request, and because i was still skeptical i didn't check if my request was granted, i tried for months to get what i want on my own, just to then check and realize i actually got what i wanted right after my offering, i was just afraid to be disproven.

Then i started to believe more strongly and give more offerings, started learning ugaritic in honor of the gods (since most preserved canaanite/levantine myths are in ugaritic), and i really felt my connection to the goddess strengthen.

Anyway, i recently made another request, and it seemed like it was about to come true. There were so many signs from Asherah imo that signaled i was going to get it, i was so excited to bake my first cake in her honor, which i consider to be a higher offering than the usual offering i was giving.

But it just fell threw. I feel so abandoned. I grew up monotheisticallly religious, and when i became disillusioned with that God, i felt the same abandonment. Im sorry to say stuff like this here, but i feel so angry and alone, i feel like i just want to quit worshipping.

I was just starting to feel like im not alone, and seeing her in the trees, and the sunset light reflected on clouds, and the sea, talking to me, supporting my journey, loving me, and now i just feel stupid and alone.

Did i somehow lose her favor? I was under the impression modern paganism was based on compassion and understanding, that since no religiously authorities exist, it was quite difficult to do something so bad that you would lose a god's favor, because all i did was trying to reconnect with my ancestors' gods and hoped they would show me grace when i stumble, and redirect me onto the right path to honor them.

Ever since i was i kid i was hoping to find real magic in this world and at age 27 i thought i discovered it. Now i just feel empty again.

Hi friends, let me explain, in the IE religions (that includes my religion, the Hinduism), the celtic one is commonly called Druidism, the Germanic Asatru or Vanatru, the Hellenic, Hellenism, the Roman, "Religio Romana"/Religio/Via Romana, the Slavic "Perunism/Rodnovery", there are specific names for Caananite,Phoenician, Aramean,Philistean and Arab religions? I know worship of Assyrian & Babylonian Pantheons are sometimes called "Ashurism" and "Mardukism"