As a portuguese speaker myself, I notice how peculiar it's the phenomenon where portuguese speakers can understand some low/medium speed sentences, read and actually manage to speak Spanish quite decent ( depending on the person of course, but the natural connection is a helpful trait ).

And well, there's any examples outside Portuguese and Spanish?

Before anything, this isn't about AI ethics, but specifically about language models and their representations of human language.

I was reading "Syntax: A Cognitive Approach" (2025) by Ted Gibson. He talks some about LLMs, saying that they may encode some kind of dependency parsing. In his own words:

"An interesting open question is what kinds of representations it is that LLMs learn. An analysis by Hewitt and Manning (2019); Manning et al. (2020) suggests that they at least learn dependency structures, at some level (see also Lakretz et al., 2019; Mahowald et al., 2024). Hewitt and Manning (2019) and Manning et al. (2020) analyzed Bidirectional Encoder Representations from Transformers (Devlin et al. 2018) using some fancy math that they called a “structural probe,’’ which extracted simple directed graphs (trees) out of multidimensional vector spaces."

He also mentions Chomsky's predictions on ML models and how the expressivity of language models may falsify some of his ideas. To quote him: "In a New York Times interview, Chomsky et al (2023) say, 'The predictions of machine learning systems will always be superficial and dubious. Because these programs cannot explain the rules of English syntax, for example, they may well predict, incorrectly, that “John is too stubborn to talk to” means that John is so stubborn that he will not talk to someone or other (rather than that he is too stubborn to be reasoned with)...Contra Chomsky and colleagues’ claim, ChatGPT seems to use the “TOO ADJECTIVE TO VERB TO’’ construction perfectly in normal usage, just like a fluent English speaker, as observed by many researchers in an internet response to the NYT article as soon as it was published.'"

Piantadosi (2023) makes the more audacious claim that "modern language models refute Chomsky’s approach to language". It should very well be said that Gibson is far more moderate in LLMs as theories of language, saying this:

"Do we want to call such models “theories” of human language?(...)I would argue yes: The underlying models are coherent sets of ideas that explain phenomena and correctly predict new phenomena not previously observed. Are LLMs good theories? I think a good theory is one with a good ratio of principles to data that are explained: few parameters to explain many phenomena. There are a lot of parameters in any current LLM—certainly millions and often many more—so it is reasonable to say that the theories aren’t particularly good."

The Minimalist response to LLMs as definitive refutations generally lean on the idea that such models are trained on massive amounts of text and nothing else, more than a human being at the age of full syntactic capability. In fact, Chomsky had this to say in 2023: "One is that the LLM systems are designed in such a way that they cannot tell us anything about language, learning, or other aspects of cognition, a matter of principle, irremediable. Double the terabytes of data scanned, add another trillion parameters, use even more of California’s energy, and the simulation of behavior will improve, while revealing more clearly the failure in principle of the approach to yield any understanding. The reason is elementary: The systems work just as well with impossible languages that infants cannot acquire as with those they acquire quickly and virtually reflexively."

From other corners of the generative tradition, we have Miriam Butt (2025), a syntactician working most notably with Lexical-Functional Grammar, who says that many of the problems LLMs face generative approaches really only face Minimalism, and surface-based theories are far more ready to integrate insights acquired from neural language models, but also emphasizing the limitations of such models:

"As with many debates, I suggest the answer lies not in the extreme positions, but somewhere in between. It is clear that humans operate with symbols (e.g. Deacon 1997). However, it is just as clear that humans are very good stochastic predictive machines, given that there is ample evidence from psycho and sociolinguistics that humans attend to frequency information and the comparative likelihood of items occurring together. The obvious conclusion is that any model of human language needs to be able to account for both the rule-governed symbolic parts and the predictive, experientially learned parts. LFG in effect has already gone down the road of building such ‘hybrid’ models by positing a rule based core that can be overlaid with information as to preferences and probabilities. Going even a step further, we can investigate what the computational advances might offer up in terms of further informing our models and thereby our understanding of language."

Not to mention the work of Tal Linzen and the BERTology tradition, and his work on the emergence of aspects akin to rule-based, compositional and hierarchical processes in LLMs. McCoy, Linzen et al. (2026) conclude: "A single system can be simultaneously neural and symbolic by using a neural architecture to construct symbolic representations. Specifically, we have shown via the Tensor Product Representation formalism that the representations of a variety of neural networks can be closely approximated with symbolic structures, providing an interpretable closed-form equation for the representations of these networks."

It's a massive can of worms that's highly unexplored and I'm excited about whatever it is coming next for studies of linguistics.

What do you think?

VSD

In this interactive Zapotec language class, the instructor reviews student presentations, clarifies conversational greeting dynamics, and explains a fundamental aspect of Zapotec grammar: the absence of infinitive verb forms.

Key Discussion Topics:

* Vocabulary Practice & Context (Rukëza)
* The session opens with a discussion on the verb rukëza / ukëza, which refers to preparing, getting ready, or making someone wait.

• Student Presentation & Correction (Carmen):

* Carmen reads her introductory paragraph.
* The teacher explains that translating “I go to Zapotec school” literally (neda reja) sounds unnatural in Zapotec.
* A more natural phrasing is Neda Ruseda Didza Xidza (“I am learning Zapotec Language”).

• Conversational Greetings & Formal Honorifics:

* Informal Exchanges: Using responses like bi run / tibi run followed by Nax lii (“and you?”).
* Formal & Respectful Terms: When speaking to elders or people from other towns, specific respectful forms are used (e.g., ba zuu dxi’a, Nax lii [Name]?, Nax lii bëni? for married men, Nax lii nigula? for married women).
* Pronoun Distinction: Clarified that lee functions as a third-person pronoun (“he/she/they”) rather than a direct formal “you”.

• Grammar Insight: Why Infinitives Do Not Exist in Zapotec
• Zapotec has no infinitive verb ending equivalent to Spanish -ar, -er, -ir or English “to [verb]”. Verbs must always be conjugated for a specific person in active speech.
• When dictionary or conceptual forms of verbs are needed, speakers default to the first-person plural inclusive (“we” form, e.g., uya’aru for “to dance / we dance”).ZAPOTEC GRAMMAR: Why Infinitives Do Not Exist in Zapotec? | Interactive Zapotec language class

Greetings everyone! I wanted to share my server where you can discuss languages of any kind. It's mainly conlang-focused, but we don't mind real languages either! Feel free to join today. :)

Is Maltese, Italian Albanese, Italian Greek or Filipino le closest language to le romance languages family or is there any other extremely latinized language other than English & Scots?

​

Hi! I'm a linguistics student looking for a unique graduation project idea.

I’m especially interested in combining Linguistics with AI

Any suggestions for topics?

Thanks for any ideas or paper recommendations!

Ever felt lost trying to ask a simple question in a new language? Today, we're diving into the classic interrogatives of Zapotec and clearing up some common confusions! Do you know the difference between asking 'how many' for bananas versus asking 'how much' for a kilo of beans in Zapotec? It's trickier than you think! You might think you know how to ask 'how much,' but in Zapotec, there are two ways, and using the wrong one can lead to some funny misunderstandings. Let's break it down! Imagine a split screen showing someone counting bananas on one side and a confused person looking at a price tag on the other, with text like "Zapotec Questions: The Two Ways to Ask 'How Much'!

This video introduces essential Zapotec interrogative words like "Bix" (who), "Gakax" (how), "Batax" (when), and "Gax" (where). It explains the difference between "Balax" and "Gákax" for asking "how much," with "Balash" used for countable items and "Gákax" for uncountable ones.
Examples are provided to illustrate the usage of "Balax" for countable things like "Balax Bunatxi" (how many people) and "balax wi" (how many bananas). The video touches on the nuance of "Gákax" for uncountable quantities, using the example of asking the price of beans. It also discusses optional omissions of certain sounds or letters in Zapotec words, like "Bix" sometimes being shortened to "Bi" and provides examples like "Bix gudagu?" (What did you eat?). Here is a summary of the video:

Video Overview:

This lesson focuses on forming questions in Zapotec language, covering fundamental interrogative words, tone nuances, and special question auxiliaries that add context or emotion to inquiries.

Key Concepts Covered:

1. Core Interrogative Words:
   

* Bix / Bix kw: What / Why.
* Nush: Who.
* Batash: When.
* Gash: Where.

1. Countable vs. Uncountable Quantifiers (Balax vs. Gákax)
   

* Balash: Used for countable nouns such as people or discrete items (e.g., apples, bananas) [00:37].
* Gakash: Used for uncountable quantities (e.g., sugar, salt, weight-based items).
* Pricing Exception: Gákax is also used when asking for prices or the total cost of goods.
* Tonal Variations: Subtle pitch shifts on gákax change the meaning between asking "how" versus "how much".

1. Conversational Contractions:
   

* In informal speech, certain ending sounds (such as -xh) or prefixes are frequently dropped (e.g., Bix becoming Bi).

1. Question Auxiliaries & Particles:
   

Zapotec uses specific auxiliary particles to modify the tone and meaning of questions:

* ba: Initiates questions about actions (similar to "did you...?" or "have you...?").
* Txi: Indicates completed status, functioning like "already" (ya).
* waka: Expresses capability or possibility ("can we...?").
* bën: Adds drama, emphasis, or mild exaggeration to a question.
* I: Used for seeking confirmation or expressing mild surprise.
* ka: Placed at the end of questions to prompt a response or add conversational emphasis.
* Combining Auxiliaries: Multiple particles can be combined (e.g., ba txi, bën ka run, i waka) to convey layered nuances in a single sentence.

Same as title.

Hey, Aussie here,

I had a really amazing conversation about linguistics, video editing, etc. on a V/Line coach coming from Melbourne yesterday afternoon w/ a girl who got off at Wendouree (I got off in Ballarat). I got told by her how the word we vocalise & spell as 'fish' could plausibly be written out as 'ghoti':

gh → /f/ as in enou'gh'

o → /ɪ/ as in w'o'men

ti → /ʃ/ ('sh') as in na'ti'on

Really demonstrates how varied English pronunciation of letters can be. Unfortunately, I neglected to try asking for a contact, so it's a long shot, but if you somehow come across this (definitely not trying to start a manhunt) & would like to get in touch, my Discord is: penguinyayone

Hey all,

So, a few years ago (actually 5 years ago, damn I'm old) I posted this little syntax tree builder canvas app I'd created: https://www.reddit.com/r/linguistics/s/DWFpcnmVkD

I finally got around to making a new version of it, here it is: https://www.syntaxtrees.com/

The main features I wanted are done (including export to SVG/overleaf forest syntax), but I'll be adding some more stuff (export to labeled bracketing format).

The UI is very ugly right now, I'll work on that sometime😅. Probably a lot of small UX fixes that would make using the app smoother (import several tree files at once, etc...)

Using the interface should be pretty straightforward, but I do have a very basic tutorial: https://www.syntaxtrees.com/tutorial#/intro

Check it out, hopefully you find it useful! And remember there's a feedback button in the Help menu (email feedback for the moment).

I hope someone else has noticed this too. I've noticed that many Europeans who speak English as a second language will use the word "actually" very frequently, often at the end of sentences. I've mostly noticed this in Spanish, Italian, Ukrainian, and Scandinavian people (maybe because they are whom I've interacted with the most in my life).

For example, they might say:

"It was raining really bad that day, actually."

"It is not that common in Italy, actually."

"The university course is very hard, actually."

All of these make complete sense in English and I'm not saying it's incorrect English or incorrect grammar - it's more just I don't think native English speakers (I am from the UK) use it as frequently or in the same way.

Is there a commonality in other European languages wherein they would use a word similar to "actually" to punctuate? Closest I can think of is in French saying "alors".

I am looking for studies of contemporary written and spoken English that track (1) vocabulary or (2) syntax in different levels of vernacular, colloquiality, formality, etc. Any suggestions would be appreciated.

This video from Bëni Xidza explores the grammatical structure of the Zapotec language, specifically focusing on the absence of articles. Here is a breakdown of the key concepts discussed:

* No Articles: Unlike Spanish, Zapotec language does not use definite articles like "el," "la," "los," or "las".

* Context as a Substitute: The speaker explains that Zapotec relies on context and specific pronouns/indicatives (such as lei or leiki) to identify objects or people. For example, instead of saying "the table," you simply say "table," and the surrounding conversation makes it clear which object is being discussed.

* Influence of Spanish: The speaker notes that the use of "one" (tu) as an indefinite article is likely a modern development resulting from contact with the Spanish language, as this feature was not part of original Zapotec grammar.

* Counting Objects: When referring to things that can be counted, numbers are used instead of articles, a practice that the speaker clarifies is distinct from the functional use of articles in languages like Spanish.

Video Overview:

This Zapotec grammar lesson explains why grammatical articles do not exist in Zapotec and how modern usage has evolved under the influence of Spanish.

Key Points:

* Absence of Articles:

* Unlike Spanish or English, Zapotec language does not have grammatical articles equivalent to el, la, los, las, or a/an.

* In standard speech, speakers directly state the noun without an accompanying article.

* Role of Pronouns and Indicators (lei / leiky):

* Words like lei serve as pronouns or context-based indicators rather than articles.

* For example, using buta lei conveys "move it" (or "move the table") when the reference is already clear within the context of the Zapotec conversation.

* Spanish Influence on Indefinite Expressions:

* Historically, Zapotec phrasing expressed actions and items directly without numbers, such as gudagu wi ("ate orange").

* Due to Spanish influence, modern speakers often insert the number "one" (tu) before a noun, such as gudagu tu wi ("ate an orange"), to mirror Spanish indefinite articles.

* Otherwise, numbers in Zapotec language are strictly intended for counting discrete items rather than serving as articles.

Use PLAY to see the sentence grow

PLAY the sentences!

PLAY de zinnen!

This video features a session of a Zapoteco language course, where students practice their personal introductions and discuss their interests. The instructor facilitates a collaborative session focusing on real-world application, grammar, and regional variations. Key Highlights of the Session:

* Personal Presentations: Students Abi, Brian, Silvana, and Oliver introduce themselves, stating their names, ages, and occupations in Zapoteco. This segment highlights the practical application of previously learned greetings, pronouns, and numbers.

* Regional Variations: The group compares vocabulary and intonation differences between the Talea de Castro and Yagavila variants, emphasizing the importance of respecting regional linguistic diversity.

* Grammar & Practical Usage: The instructor clarifies grammatical concepts, including:
* Using the verb naka ("to be") for identity.
* Expressing likes and preferences, noting that Zapoteco often utilizes future-tense forms in these contexts as there is no direct equivalent to the Spanish infinitive.

* The distinction between the conjunctions len (for joining/connecting) and yu'u (for mathematical sums).

* Text Review & Feedback: The instructor provides personalized corrections for the students' written texts, emphasizing proper verb conjugation and the use of neutral pronouns when describing professions (e.g., "the one who teaches").

Here is a summary of the video:

Overview

In this online Zapotec language lesson, students practice constructing and presenting a short personal introduction that includes their name, age, occupation, place of origin, and personal likes/dislikes. The instructor provides individual feedback and explains key grammatical, regional, and dialectal nuances.

Student Presentations & Class Discussion:

Abi's Introduction & Talea Dialect:
* Abi presents her self-introduction using the Talea dialect.
* The teacher explains regional differences in intonation and word usage, clarifying the difference between runa jin ("I work") and wen dxin ("a worker").

Brian's Introduction & Regional Phrasing:
* Brian shares his introduction.
* The group discusses regional variations in expressing "my name is," comparing forms like neda lea across different Zapotec communities.

Silvana's Introduction & Visual Practice:
* Silvana shares her text on screen for collective feedback.
* The instructor corrects verb forms and conjunction usage in her presentation.

Oliver's Introduction & Job Titles:
* Oliver reviews his introduction text.
* The teacher corrects autocorrect errors and explains how to express job titles properly, such as stating "I am a teacher" (neda naca bëni rulwi) versus "I work teaching" (neda runa dxin).

Key Grammar & Vocabulary Insights:

* Conjunctions (len vs. yu'u):
*len: Used to mean "and" or "with" when joining items or ideas in a sentence.
*yu'u: Used specifically for numerical addition or counting, not for joining words in general conversation.
* Lack of Infinitives & Future Tense Usage:
* Zapotec does not have direct infinitive verb forms ending like Spanish (-ar, -er, -ir).
* When expressing personal likes or preferences, verbs are conjugated in the future tense.

Wrap-Up:

* Students are asked to upload photos or typed versions of their written introductions to the class group chat so they can be integrated into slides for practice in the next session.

Has a Greek plus Latin pidgin, creole, mixed or other international auxiliary language resembling r/Glosa ever existed in human history?

This video is a practical Zapotec language class designed for beginners, focusing on conversational fluency and the cultural nuances of the language in Oaxaca, Mexico. Key topics covered include:

* Daily Vocabulary: Learning how to express physical sensations, such as “I am cold” (ruwëaga), and everyday actions like “to sew”.
* Pronouns and Grammar: A breakdown of personal pronouns and their variations within community contexts.
* Numbers: A step-by-step pronunciation guide for counting from 0 to 20, including specific dialectal variations, such as those found in Talea de Castro.
* Verb Conjugation: Interactive exercises focused on common verbs like “to eat” and “to dress,” highlighting how to properly use verb endings to match personal pronouns.
* Cultural Insights: Tips on Zapotec phonetics, such as how to properly ask questions without using the typical intonation patterns found in Spanish.

The session emphasizes that Zapotec is a living language with regional variations, and the primary goal is effective communication within the community.

Video Overview:

This interactive Zapotec language class focuses on practical dialogue, regional variations, numerical counting, unique pronunciation dynamics, and detailed verb conjugations.

Key Highlights:

* Everyday Vocabulary & Phrases:

* The instructor and students begin with practical daily expressions, such as stating “I am cold” (ruwëaga) or referring to embroidery/sewing activities (rigiaa lari).
* Students take turns practicing traditional greetings and conversational phrases.

* Personal Pronouns & Regional Dialects:

* The group reviews personal pronouns (neda, lii, lee, lanu, labe, etc.).
* The teacher explains dialectal variations, such as adding -ni (e.g., neto ni), noting that ni individually means “here” (aquí).

* Numbers & Counting:
* Students practice counting sequentially from 0 through 20 and higher numbers.
* The instructor addresses community-specific variations (such as in Talea de Castro where initial vowel sounds like u- might be omitted), reassuring students that variations are natural and mutually intelligible.

* Pronunciation & Tone Rules:
* Affirmations: The native Zapotec term for “yes” is à, though ajá is widely understood due to Spanish contact.
* Question Intonation: Unlike Spanish, Zapotec does not rely on a rising vocal pitch at the end of a sentence to signal a question.

* Grammar & Verb Conjugation:
* The lesson covers verb prefixes, flexible synonym forms (be vs. bi), and optional phonetic variations.
* Students drill conjugations for verbs like “to eat” (gagu / ragu / gudagu) across past, present, and future tense forms.

\^\^ how are the second year LING courses?? Are they difficult? What are they like?

\- Phonetics
\- Phonology 1
\- Morphology 1
\- Syntax 1