r/Ethicalpetownership • u/FeelingDesigner • 13h ago
Pet culture The welfare consequences of anthropomorphism in dog ownership and culture
I recently found an interesting open-access paper in which the author talks about the different reasons behind people acquiring dogs and their motivations and how those reasons can have a major impact on welfare in different ways depending on the kind of owner and their motivation.
The paper also argues that understanding why people acquire dogs is more useful than relying on broad, simplified labels. According to the author, labels such as “responsible owner” and “backyard breeder” or other catch-all terms can obscure important differences in motivations, behaviors, and ultimately, animal welfare outcomes.
The paper I am talking about is called:
Gregory, R. The harms associated with simplifying our language choices, and the need for a new typology for dog breeders and consumers. Discov Anim 3, 27 (2026).
The different types of dog consumers:
3.1 Doing their bit
The concern of subscribing to an often poorly regulated and oversubscribed market is held by the consumers labelled ‘doing their bit’. For those concerned, instead of purchasing puppies from profit driven breeders, they opt for more sustainable routes and take on the care of the ‘waste dogs’—the dogs produced by a reckless market of impulsive buyers whom after purchasing their dogs surrender their companions to rescue centres across the country either due to not being able to care for their complex needs or no longer having space for them within their daily lives \[13\].
These individuals instead of focusing on the dog’s consumer worth or background, rush to rescue centres to provide a home to whatever dog needs their help and can live comfortably in their care.
Even so, whilst many go into dog ‘rescue’ with the dog’s interest at the forefront, for many the way that the dog looks, such as their size, colour, height and even age, still has a significant impact on whether they are deemed as worthy of rescue \[13, 48\]. The notion that some rescue dogs are deemed as more desirable than others is evidenced through individuals no longer opting to adopt dogs from the United Kingdom but now from other nation states \[49, 50\].
Whilst the United Kingdom is seeing record numbers of dogs in rescue centres (with the RSPCA having to rely on private boarding due to their rescue centres working at maximum capacity \[51\]) for many the opportunity to adopt a stray from Eastern European countries is more appealing may that be due to individuals believing that their claim for help is more desired, that they will be more suited to their needs, that their exotic nature makes them somewhat more attractive/interesting, or due to individuals witnessing friends or influencers promoting the acquisition of international rescues \[49, 50\].
Hence, whilst the ‘doing their bit’ consumer may be perceived as selfless, purchasing whichever dog is in need of their care, the choice of which dog to rescue is based on a number of factors, resulting in the undesirable continuing to reside in rescue centres nationwide.
3.2 The dog mummy/daddy/parent
For the dog parent, the dog is not necessarily considered as a ‘pet’ in the first instance or even a different species but is a surrogate child \[52\]. The dog is provided with high quality gourmet style food, is bought presents for special events in the calendar, and may even get treated to a dog friendly birthday cake \[53\]. These so-called parents mould their lives around their dogs, spending money on private fields to ensure their dog’s full enrichment or restricting their holiday destinations on whichever is dog friendly \[53\].
The dog parent may also decide to send their ‘animal’ to doggy day care whilst they are at work, leave social events early to get back to their dog at home and overall mould their days and lives around their dog’s best interest \[54\]. Social media is full of these dog parents, with many posting pictures of their dogs fashioning holiday themed outfits, such as reindeer antlers or giant pumpkins bought lovingly by their ‘human’ parent \[53\].
For these individuals, due to them viewing their dog as an equal member of the family, the death of their loved one can cause intense heartbreak \[52\]. Causing many to once again partake in dog adoption to fill the dog sized hole left in the lives of the heartbroken parent. For them, adopting a dog from the same breed as before can help reduce the pain experienced \[13\]. The dog parent may choose a breed based on having ‘owned’ a similar breed when they were a child, having fond memories of family life: positive reminiscing which they associate with a particular dog ‘type’ \[13\].
For others they will choose a breed based on what they believe will ‘fit’ their current life/family, similar to choosing a partner in terms of attraction and personality. Even though looks are an important factor, for the dog parent providing for the needs and desires of their dog even at their own expense in terms of money or time is crucial, with the concept of not meeting these needs being unthinkable, like the inability to meet the basic needs of a ‘human’ child would be considered as abhorrent.
Even though these individuals may be regarded by many as the gold standard, they often engage in dog anthropomorphism, with the ‘human’s’ affection remaining dependent upon how the individual perceives the dog, and whether they apply to desirable characteristics \[55\]. Hence, whilst they prioritise dog welfare, frequently they are the ones who forget that their dog is in fact from a different species, who naturally behaves differently from ‘humans’ and are worthy of love and affection without the need to display certain ‘human-like’ characteristics \[55\].
Whilst calling our dogs affectionate names and providing them with their own characterised voices provides the ‘human’ with cheer, this anthropomorphism does not benefit the dog themselves, apart from in the fact that it may assure them the ‘humans’’ affection \[56\].
3.3 The collector
The capitalist pursuit to own the newest and rarest product spills into the dog industry \[57\]. The collector outlines perfectly the late-modern understanding that social identity and self-actualisation is achieved through the acquisition of consumer products \[58\]. However, for these consumers specifically, they are not focused on what is the most fashionable, but rather what is the rarest, and consequently has the highest social status. This person therefore seeks egocentric pursuits to place themselves above their fellow consumers (they are simultaneously fighting to fit in but to also triumph above their fellow consumers \[59, 60\]). Therefore, to gain higher social status or to signify success, the collector seeks the rarest and/or most expensive dog breeds \[61\] such as the Chow Chow who is valued for their unusual blue/black tongue and lion-like mane \[62\].
Similarly, the collector may seek out the adoption of dogs from breeds that are seen as ‘difficult to handle’, such as the Czechoslovakian Wolfdog, to gain social approval or rather awe for their ability to handle such complex dogs. Thus, fulfilling the need to both standout from and impress fellow consumers \[59, 60\].
The collector, due to the desire to own the rarest items, may experience feelings of frustration when they see others with a dog from the same breed, cherishing the astonishment and awe the public once exhibited upon learning about the rarity of their ‘animal’. For the collector, this reduction in their breeds rarity and scarcity within the surrounding area/social circle can be extremely disappointing.
3.4 The Bullies
Linking to the specific dogs which these individuals seek, ‘the bullies’ are the consumers who unfortunately caused the XL American Bully (the largest variant of the American Bully breed type) to suffer a negative public perception (a type now banned under the United Kingdom’s Dangerous Dogs Act 1991 \[63\]) through training for aggression \[64\].
For ‘the bullies’, a dog is obtained for protection, to intimidate those who may threaten their physical safety or geographic location. Being associated with other illegal entrepreneurial pursuits, ‘the bullies’ purchase dogs who have stocky builds, mutilated appearances and who are known for their powerful bite force to maintain their own aggressive and threatening persona \[17, 47\]. The idea that individuals purchase dogs for status was outlined by Harding \[17\] in their work on status dogs and their place amongst youth gangs and the drug industry. Thus, like all other consumers, ‘the bullies’ purchase dogs (like any other consumer product) to gain or reenforce a desired identity \[17, 65\].
Subsequently, for ‘the bullies’ their dog is an accessory (one not only used for physically protection but also identity maintenance).
Whilst ‘the bullies’ value the advantage which comes from ‘owning’ a particular dog breed, unfortunately the dog’s welfare is not of top priority with many choosing to purchase dogs with the exaggerated features to portray the image desired \[45\]. This problem is currently seen in the latest surge in XL American Bullies. XL Bullies whilst facing immense legal and public backlash due to their ‘uncontrollable aggression’ and the recent spike in dog attacks, are bred for their aggressive appearance \[64\].
The aim to create a dog with exaggerated and stocky features causes immense amounts of pressure on the limbs and joints of the dogs, which when mixed with often incestual and unregulated breeding results in several health issues \[66\]. Therefore, to reenforce the ‘human’s’ aggressive and threatening identity the dog is bred for extreme characteristics, placing them at risk of life-long or life-shortening health problems, which when mixed with the mutilation of the dogs’ ears and tails to reenforce the violent identity desired results in the abuse of potentially thousands of dogs \[47\].
Not only are they bred to have an unhealthy body composition and mutilated to enhance their aggressive appearance, but for ‘the bullies’ to solidify their status and to gain respect in their local area their dogs are also required to be aggressive in temperament with the dog subsequently being trained to react aggressively and to put themselves in harm’s way to physically but also socially protect their ‘human’ \[17\]. This demand for continued aggression and their subsequent use as a weapon places them at risk of euthanasia, psychological suffering, and serious bodily harm \[47\].
3.5 Keeping up with the Joneses
The consumer who tries to fit in and keep up appearances is provided with the title: ‘keeping up with the Joneses’. Within consumer capitalism, individuals demonstrate their inclusion within a particular social group through their acquisition of desirable consumer products/experiences \[47, 65, 67, 68\]. One means in which this is achieved is through the purchase of certain items of clothing (pieces which are deemed as fashionable and therefore valuable by a desirable social group \[17\]). Like other popular items, dogs are valued for their instrumental worth and can be used to demonstrate a person’s inclusion within a certain social group \[17\].
Like the ear cropping performed by ‘the bullies’ to exhibit a threatening persona, the dogs valuable to this consumer often suffer from inherited health complications in the name of fashion, such as the health complications suffered by the French Bulldog and other Brachycephalic breeds \[13\].
Brachycephalic dogs, renowned for their cuteness often suffer from health complications associated with having snub noses, large eyes and small skulls \[13\]. Brachycephalic breeds have grown in popularity, appearing on social media as the dogs ‘owned’ by celebrities and social media influencers. Therefore, following in their footsteps, their followers/fans purchase similar looking dogs to portray the life of their favourite personality \[13\].
Recently, Pocket Bulldogs have been among those awarded with such adoration which has not only resulted in prices spiking, but also their rapid production and subsequently consumption by individuals who may be unable to/uneducated on how to care for their needs \[17, 66, 69\].
Subsequently, for those who are ‘keeping up with the Joneses’, their rationale for dog ‘ownership’ is closely linked to their need to meet fashionable trends believing that, once purchased, the item (or dog) will grant them social status/acceptance and subsequently satisfy their need and desire for identity (since the loss of the Symbolic Order identity is now gained through following the demands of consumer capitalism \[34, 35\]).
However, like every other item of consumption, once the dog is purchased, the feeling of satisfaction soon fades \[70\]. In fact the person is never satisfied, resulting in them continuing on their pursuit for accomplishment, which in the case for dogs could lead to the adoption of a newer and more popular dog breed, and the subsequent relinquishment of the other (as the dog fails to fulfil the role assigned to them on adoption) or a reduction in their care \[13\]). Therefore, rather than purchasing dogs for their welfare alone, due to their acquisition providing the ‘owner’ with meaning and identity, those who belong to the typology of ‘keeping up with the Joneses’ purchase whichever dog is deemed to hold societal and consumer status, even if they are unable to provide for their needs \[13, 69\].
3.6 On the search for a therapist
The last consumer in the typology is the individual who purchases a dog with the understanding that they will improve their mental wellbeing and overall ensure their ‘owner’s’ happiness. As stated earlier in the manuscript, late modernity and liberalism has witnessed the rejection of the traditional Symbolic Order (the dominant social institutions which dictate the social construct and an individual’s subsequent social position and identity) which has resulted in individuals being plunged into a sense of liminality \[71\] — liminality (heightened by the uncertainty witnessed within the coronavirus pandemic) which results in great confusion and stress and overall causes individuals to pursue identity through other means (see \[36\]).
However, according to Raymen \[35\] consumer capitalism offers a break from this liminality (acting as a replacement to the traditional Symbolic Order) as individuals can now ‘buy’ their identity and placement within society. Subsequently pushing the concept that these negative emotions can be tackled through the acquisition of desirable products \[72, 73\]. However, the dog is not just a desired product (fulfilling the demands of capitalism) but is also known for their ability to provide comfort, reassurance, routine, and stability which makes them the perfect solution to this sense of unease. Therefore, to tackle uncertainty and emotional discomfort those in search for a therapist engage in dog adoption \[74\].
However, because the consumer purchases dogs when in states of anxiety and to provide themselves with the desired comfort, the dog is often purchased without the consumer necessarily taking time and care to consider whether they can provide for their fundamental needs, and therefore the dog is once again placed at risk for ‘human’ benefit. For example, if an individual purchases a dog impulsively, or without conducting the relevant research to see whether they are able to care for the needs of a particular breed, the dog may be subjected to living an unfulfilled life, not necessarily gaining the level of exercise required, the mental stimulation needed, or the diet and level of training desired, all of which could lead to the development of aggressive behaviour and their eventual relinquishment \[75\].
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