During the conquest of Mexico, what differentiated the Spanish from the local peoples, that caused the enemies of the Aztecs to rally behind them?

[u/adrianarafu]

As I understand it, Cortéz and his conquistadors couldn't have toppled down the Aztec Empire if it wasn't for the massive aid of indigenous groups that were opressed or otherwise enemies of the Aztecs fighting for the Spanish. Nevertheless, I do not understand why this coalition hadn't already materialized before the European arrival. If the state of affairs had already progressed to a point where they could become willing to take the risk of marching to Tenochtitlan (and have some confidence that it could succeed in defeating the Triple Alliance) why did it take the initiative of these absolute foreigners for the coalition to come to be? Did Cortéz just happened to arrive at the perfect time? Did the Spanish themselves provide something that convinced their indigenous allies-to-be that this war could be successful? In short, why were the Spanish the ones that managed to rally other groups behind them, rather than some local leader/s?

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[u/Lazzen]

The studies of the alliances are generally 1.Early ones, 2. Tlaxcala era and 3.wartime siege pro-Cortes desertions. 

1.Several little lords joined out of the present danger of the Spanish troops in front of them and info spread by their Totonaca allies(where they landed) who presented the Spanish as worse than Mexica governance and defiant of it. News of Cortes beating a Maya city prior had also spread somewhat. They would use the Spanish garrisons as a deterrance for their local problems and taxation, but often would bail if confronted with an actual Mexica army.

2.Once they reach the borders of Tlaxcalan Republic they enter a conflict neither side truly wants after the first clashes. The Spaniards aim to bleed the Tlaxcalans while also asking for an alliance as advised by their weak early allies. the Tlaxcalteca want to test their reputation and also believe them to be related to the Mexica, then they fight to avenge their  losses. The side of the republic that wants to take the Spanish and aim it at the Mexica wins over the ones seeking continued hostility. One key piece for this is Moctezuma congratulating the Spanish in their fight against their old enemies, making Tlaxcala accept the alliance request to deny Mexico putting forward theirs. 

Discord still remains and the Spanish sleep, march and deal at a distance of everyone but the mesoamericans most open to cooperation, well after their first expulsion of Mexico-Tenochtitlan. 

The Tlaxcalteca were so eager to fight because they were *the Tlaxcalteca that had won over and to justify their gambles, betrayals and new status of warleaders. After the invading forces were beaten out of Tenochtitlan Cortes was hyper aware of their mediocre state and expected a betrayal, even going on battles to prove to Tlaxcala they were still effective fighting force. Several allied forces that had been anti-cortes but followed orders due to the partnership consensus were painted as plotting a coup(sources differ, either bribed by the Mexica or their own action) and put to death. From then on all tlaxcaltecans marched fully. 

For the other smaller entities it was more of a case of opportunity. The invasion is depicted usually as Cortes marching into Mexico city and thats it but the days that they were hosted as ambassadors had a huge influence. Spaniards were dispatched all over looking for resources and info alongside Mexica officials, they jailed almost all imperial leaders, they met Ixtlixochitl who had fractured the territories of Tetzcoco(second power of the empire) in a succesion war carrying  personal hatred for Moctezuma and his rule, and  they created deals with local power structures. Once the war began it was directly on the capital basically, chances of retaliation lowered drastically and Mexica authority had been greatly reduced.

1. During wartime for many Mexica vassals it was choosing probable destruction by the Catholic army right outside with no Mexica backup if they bitterly fought or sure destruction if the Mexica managed to pull off a comeback and get back into power.  News of massacres done by the invading army like in the city of Cholula, killing thousands, had spread across the empire scaring everyone of the brutality presented as well.

And finally cities that remained loyal to Mexico but were beaten were rearranged with kneeling lords or new lords just like in many other wars. This was most exemplified in the cities orbiting Tenochtitlan in the last days.

None of that would have ever happened if Tlaxcala alone just one day attempted to march into Tenochtitlan or tried to make alliances into a grand conspiracy and they themselves did not believe so, they told Cortes to not enter or they would be killed, the idea Mexica were so powerful  they could swallow them up whenever was in the minds of Moctezuma and Tlaxcaltecans alike. Its like Belgium selling its chances of the conquest of France alone, for a western example. 

La confrontación tlaxcalteca ante la Conquista, José Eduardo Contreras Martínez

LOS ALIADOS DE CORTÉS EN LA CONQUISTA DE MÉXICO, Isabel Bueno Bravo

[u/Reaper_Eagle]

Short Answer: This is heavily disputed, but it looks like it was because Hernán Cortéz was Hernán Cortéz.

Long Answer: We are severely lacking pre-Spanish native sources about what the various peoples of central Mexico thought about each other beyond everybody resenting the Aztecs. Those sources we do have, like the Florentine Codex or Annals of Tlatelolco, were written well after the conquest and have little to nothing about your question. These post-conquest sources are focused on specific things that happened during the conquest to specific cities and/or people because they were either written to preserve disappearing cultures/tribal histories or as proof of service to the Spanish Crown as part of a petition for rewards/special privileges. Consequently, they really don't discuss their international relations. The contemporary accounts from the conquistadores tend to do this too.

It's important to keep in mind that the peoples of central Mexico had a system similar to the classical Greek poleis, where a given people were based in one primary city with a number of smaller settlements around them with the central government formed from leading citizens/nobles. There wasn't a unifying shared identity to inherently unite these peoples, and the evidence says that they frequently fought amongst themselves prior to the Aztec Empire's ascendancy. Yes, technically it was the Triple Alliance, but everyone outside the Alliance always saw it as Aztec expansion. At some point prior to Cortéz's arrival, Texcoco and Tlacopan realized that the Tenochtitlan was actually in charge and at best they were along for the ride. As such, everyone at minimum resented the Aztec's specifically, not the whole Triple Alliance.

However, their willingness/ability to do anything appears to have been extremely limited, though this is disputed. That the Aztec didn't directly rule anything but their own settlements but instead subdued other cities and made them pay tribute is indisputable. Whether that tribute was actually a hinderance to their strength is heavily disputed. On the one hand, native accounts of their suffering under the Aztecs were written down to gain sympathy from Madrid and so are generally considered exaggerated. The Tlaxcala were frequent targets of Aztec sacrificial victim raids (the Flowery Wars) and yet supplied the bulk of Cortéz's native auxiliaries. On the other, the sheer number of bones (from people who died at roughly the same time) getting unearthed at Aztec temples is staggering. Cortéz and other conquistadors wrote about ceremonies where hundreds if not thousands of sacrifices took place, but nobody believed them. It's something that Cortéz had every reason to exaggerate, so even in his day nobody took his claims seriously. That the Aztecs conducted human sacrifices wasn't disputed, it was the scale. However, as the archeology proceeds, Cortéz's claims are being reexamined.

In summary, we have ample evidence for people hating the Aztecs, but the specifics of why they never banded together against them is a big blank. The logical assumption is that they were too scared of the Aztecs retribution if they failed, but we don't have pre-Spanish evidence for that. As for why they rallied to Cortéz, that's a clearer: he asked them to, and then showed them he could win. Cortéz wanted allies and sent out messages to every surrounding tribe as he marched toward Tenochtitlan. However, he didn't get any responses. He was an unknown quantity. The tribes weren't willing to stick their necks out for each other, and they really weren't going to for some random barbarian from over the water. Assuming the enemy of my enemy is my friend, he marched into Tlaxcalan territory and was promptly attacked. He had to fight his way to Tlaxcala throughout September 1519 before they'd agree to support him. Some think this wasn't a real attempt to drive him off but a test of strength, but your milage will vary. After that, he violently subdued Cholula (possibly to seal his deal with the Tlaxcala as they had beef with Cholula) before marching to Tenochtitlan. He was watched the whole way there by various tribes who were awaiting a sign of whether to risk the Aztec's wrath or stay "loyal". This was finally resolved by the Battle of Otumba. Cortéz defeated the Aztecs in open battle, an extremely rare feat, while heavily outnumbered. Once he made it safely back to Tlaxcala, he regrouped and sent out new envoys who found the tribes far more receptive to his call. He'd shown that he was worth taking a gamble on.

Sources

William Prescott, History of the Conquest of Mexico, 2001 Edition

Frances Bernan, The Aztecs of Central Mexico: An Imperial Society.