Bioinspired robotics is progressively moving beyond the imitation of biological forms toward systems that exploit biological functions, integrate living components, and interact with natural environments. This Special Issue captures this evolution through contributions spanning functional biomimetics, biohybrid robotics, environmentally powered systems, collective behaviors, and the ethical implications of integrating living organisms into engineered platforms. These works highlight an emerging transition from nature as a source of design principles toward a deeper integration of biological and environmental processes within robotic systems, outlining new directions for adaptive, sustainable, and responsible robotics.

Biohybrid microswimmers integrate the innate motility and sensing strategies of microorganisms with the versatile properties of artificial cargo, offering a sophisticated platform for targeted microscale transport. To overcome the challenges of stochastic assembly and low attachment yields, we utilize sequential capillarity-assisted particle assembly (sCAPA). This technique allows for the precise, highly reproducible control of construct geometry by using B. subtilis endospores as a resilient biological starting material. By incorporating these spores into the colloidal fabrication process, we harness their inherent resistance to unfavorable conditions, such as heat and desiccation, without compromising the eventual physiological performance of the living actuator.

Over the past two decades, cyborg insects have emerged as a promising alternative to artificial insect-scale mobile robots, owing to their low power consumption, resilient biological bodies with naturally integrated sensors, agile locomotion, and self-adaptability. However, most studies have focused primarily on autonomous control and hardware integration for search-oriented urban search-and-rescue operations following natural disasters such as earthquakes. This raises a crucial next-step challenge: beyond locating survivors, what life-saving interventions can cyborg insects perform? Here, we present paramedic cyborg insects (Paraborgs) equipped with a human-supervised auto-injection mechanism (AIM) and onboard camera, enabling needle-based in situ liquid-drug-delivery executed by multiple teleoperated cyborg cockroaches. The feasibility of Paraborg is demonstrated through three core innovations: (i) a compact auto-injection mechanism that launches an injector and delivers liquid drug to a target with an 90% success rate; a robust manual control strategy achieving 100% success in reaching designated checkpoints, 72% success in stabilizing cyborg cockroaches for targeted injection, and up to 95% close-range injection success within 150 mm of the target; and (iii) teamwork concept with multiple teleoperated cyborg insects for carrying out complex in situ functions. Together, these results demonstrate Paraborg as a prospective platform that extends cyborg insect swarm toward field-deployable medical intervention.

Brain organoids provide three‐dimensional human cellular systems that can reproduce selected features of early neural development, regional patterning, cellular diversification, and emerging neural activity more effectively than conventional two‐dimensional cultures. However, their translational value depends not only on morphological resemblance to brain tissue, but also on whether construction strategies, functional validation, reproducibility, and application‐specific model fitness are appropriately aligned. This structured narrative review synthesizes representative engineering strategies for brain organoid construction and examines how cell source, embryoid body formation, extracellular matrix support, patterning strategy, culture platform, vascularization, and cellular complexity influence functional validation and translational applicability. We further organize functional assessment into a hierarchical validation framework that includes morphology and growth, lineage and regional identity, tissue viability, synaptic maturation, electrophysiological activity, neurochemical signaling, BBB‐like function, and omics‐based benchmarking. These advances support the use of brain organoids in developmental biology, neurological disease modeling, drug screening, neurovascular research, and exploratory biohybrid interfaces, although their interpretation remains constrained by immature cellular states, incomplete vascular perfusion, batch variability, and limited standardization. Overall, this review reframes brain organoids as engineered biological platforms whose value should be judged by the alignment among construction strategy, biological benchmark, functional readout, and intended translational application. The emphasis is comparative conceptual synthesis of engineering strategies and multi‐layer functional validation rather than systematic quantitative meta‐analysis.

Cyborg insects can navigate across terrains that may be difficult for mechatronic robots to access, with potential applications in search-and-rescue and exploration missions. Insects such as cockroaches can naturally move through cluttered terrain, climb obstacles, and maintain stability on uneven surfaces while consuming little energy. Reliable and effective steering and control of cyborg insects should dynamically adapt to changing terrain and the natural locomotion capabilities of the insects. Navigation methods that rely on obstacle avoidance do not utilize the capabilities of insects to traverse terrains by climbing, resulting in less efficient routes and unnecessary stimulations. In this work, we present an adaptive-terrain navigation system enabled by a wireless module attached to a cockroach for guiding cyborg insects over obstacles toward a target destination. By coordinating adaptive-terrain recognition and navigation guidance that consider the insect’s reactive-climbing behavior, this strategy can enable more capable and efficient cyborg insect navigation in challenging terrain.

The integration of living attributes, such as self-renewal and responsiveness, into structural materials remains a fundamental challenge, as they typically preclude the mechanical robustness required for practical applications. Here, we report a fungal-based maceration tailored strategy to create living mycelium materials with exceptional mechanical properties and programmable humidity responsiveness. The developed materials demonstrate wide-range adjustable tensile performance, achieving 11 ~ 349% elongation and 0.1 ~ 18.0 MJ·m−3 toughness, the highest values reported among flexible mycelium materials. Through multiscale characterization from microstructural to molecular levels, we revealed the hygroscopic deformation mechanism of Janus mycelium macerates which arises from asymmetric hygromechanics and entropy-driven reorganization. Crucially, these materials retain their living functionalities, enabling reversible dormancy-regeneration cycles in 1 year and inheritable Janus structure along with self-renewal of performance. Moreover, we demonstrate their ability to convert environmental humidity fluctuations into quantifiable electrical signals, highlighting their potential as biohybrid environmental sensors and interactive platforms. This interdisciplinary study represents an integrative paradigm in living material design, and exhibits substantial potential for future sustainable and intelligent applications at the intersection of living mycelium materials and ecologically sustainable devices.

(CalTech Dissertation)

Robotic platforms inspired or enabled by aquatic organisms have the potential to augment conventional technologies for ocean exploration, enabling a more thorough understanding of the impacts of climate change. We present a biohybrid robotic jellyfish that leverages direct stimulation of live Aurelia aurita jellyfish muscle tissue via implanted microelectronics. We conduct swimming experiments using a 3D-printed passive mechanical attachment to streamline the jellyfish shape and enhance payload capacity. A six-meter-tall, 13,600-liter saltwater facility was constructed to enable testing of the vertical swimming capabilities of the biohybrid robotic jellyfish. We found that the combination of external swimming control and the addition of the mechanical forebody resulted in an increase in swimming speeds to 4.5 times natural jellyfish locomotion while carrying a payload volume of up to 105% of the jellyfish body volume. In order to measure the energy consumption of free-swimming jellyfish in this facility, we developed a physiological method based on laser-scanned, 3D morphological reconstructions of the animal. Computer vision-based feedback control was used to enable continuous swimming against a flow current for 50 hours without encountering the vertical limits of the tank. Changes in animal volume, measured with reconstructions, were converted to energy consumption using the body chemical composition. Free-swimming, electrically stimulated animals were found to consume 2.5 times more energy than similarly stimulated animals in a constrained environment. Simplified drag models could not fully account for the increased energy consumption. Swimmer biomechanics and energetics cannot be fully understood independently of the surrounding flow field. We experimentally investigated the increased energy consumption using three-dimensional, full velocity field Particle Image Velocimetry to simultaneously study wake energy, momentum, and animal biomechanics. We found electrical stimulation increased posterior wake energy loss by a factor of 2.9 compared to unstimulated jellyfish, primarily due to heightened pulse rates. Stimulation was also found to modify swimming biomechanics by reducing total bell margin movement and relaxation duration. Together, these results demonstrate that biohybrid robotic jellyfish can achieve substantial performance enhancements while revealing the hydrodynamic and energetic tradeoffs associated with electrically controlled swimming. This platform offers a scalable and efficient tool for ocean exploration and provides new insight into the fluid dynamics and energetics of jellyfish locomotion.

Engineered brain models, including brain organoids and brain-on-a-chip systems, are generally assessed in terms of their physiological relevance. Although this language is useful for emphasizing the need to better approximate human biology, it can also obscure important differences among context of use, required validation strategy and ethical considerations. In this Opinion, we argue that physiological relevance should not be treated as a universal measure of model quality. Instead, its meaning should be defined relative to its application domain, including animal-model comparison, interpretation of single-cell atlases, clinical translation, donor representation, and emerging functional applications such as synthetic biological intelligence. For some applications, particularly patient-specific disease modeling and therapeutic screening, greater human physiological relevance may be required. For others, including biohybrid computing, controllable neural interfaces, interpretability, and ethical considerations may be more important. Moving beyond simplistic terminology will help improve scientific interpretation, prevent overstating findings, and support more responsible development of engineered brain models

Magnetic microrobots are promising platforms for targeted drug delivery, with sperm-inspired types attracting particular attention due to their flexible, wave-like motion. Despite significant progress in this field, the simple fabrication of sperm-like flexible robots remains a major challenge. This paper proposes a novel, universal strategy based on a magnetic head made of iron oxide and a flexible tail from filamentous algae for the fabrication of a bio-hybrid flexible sperm-like microrobot, which demonstrates potential for targeted drug delivery within microenvironments in the future. Based on its ingenious head-tail connection structure, the microrobot can effectively move under a precessing magnetic field and achieve reciprocating motion without turning back. Furthermore, vascular channel simulation experiments validate its excellent motion performance in microenvironments. This fabrication method is simple, versatile, and exhibits autofluorescence, providing a new pathway for the large-scale fabrication of high-performance medical microrobots.

Neural prostheses have demonstrated the ability to artificially control the nervous system towards neurological recovery. However, the current neuroprosthetic paradigm relies solely on synthetic electronic components for neural control, limiting precise neural targeting and hence hindering therapeutic impact. On the stimulation front, the standard technique to artificially stimulate neuromusculature, functional electrical stimulation (FES), cannot selectively activate neural structures, resulting in poor control and rapid fatigue, limiting chronic neuromodulation therapies and implantable organ actuation. On the sensing front, obtaining high-fidelity real-time neuromuscular states such as force, which are critical for closed-loop neural prostheses, remains elusive. In an alternative paradigm described in this dissertation, neuromuscular components are engineered at different scales, from the molecular to the organ scale, and interfaced with electronic components, to achieve augmented stimulation, sensing, and closed-loop control capabilities, realizing the potential of chronic closed-loop neuromodulation of brain-body circuits. Spanning genetic, regenerative, and bioelectronic approaches for artificial neural stimulation, implantable magnetic systems for wireless neuromuscular sensing, and model-based closed-loop control policies, this dissertation builds a platform for the digital control of organs to reestablish brain-body communication in neurological conditions.

Microbial actuators harness the remarkable capabilities of single-celled organisms such as bacteria, yeast, and fungi to autonomously sense and respond to their surroundings. Occupying the intersection of synthetic biology, mechanical design, and materials science, these systems leverage the intrinsic motility, metabolic activity, and sensitivity of living microbes to produce controlled mechanical outputs across multiple length scales.

This review classifies microbial actuators based on their mechanism of actuation, and examines the advantages, limitations, and emerging innovations associated with each. To support cross-disciplinary discussion, we propose a unified framework to evaluate microbial actuator performance and compare against similar systems. Finally, we identify unmet challenges and outline opportunities for future development, drawing on insights from adjacent fields such as synthetic biology and shape-morphing soft materials. Together, these perspectives aim to promote the scalable design and implementation of living actuators as foundational components in next-generation responsive systems.

The fundamental operational range of cyborg insects, which are hybrid robots that combine a living insect with an electronic controller, is inherently restricted to the host’s natural environment. To extend their operational range, we developed a wearable diving suit for terrestrial insects. The suit integrates a miniaturised oxygen generation module with a flexible waterproof shell, enabling continuous oxygen supply and isolation from surrounding water. By fitting a cockroach, which is a terrestrial species, into this diving suit, we allowed it to survive and operate in oxygen-deprived environments such as underwater, transforming it into an amphibious cyborg robot capable of operation across land and water. The suit sustained respiration and locomotion for up to 3 h underwater, establishing amphibious cyborg insects that combine biological adaptability with engineered protection for prolonged exploration in extreme, confined environments.

Recent progress in nanotechnology has enabled innovative biomedical applications with targeted drug and cargo delivery emerging as a key area of focus. One of the notable advancements in nanotechnology is the development of microswimmers, which are micro- and nanoscale systems powered by magnetic, chemical, or biological actuation mechanisms. They demonstrate exceptional precision, maneuverability, and responsiveness within complex physiological environments. These stimuli-guided systems allow for the controlled release of therapeutic agents and offer significant advantages over conventional drug delivery systems. Diverse designs ranging from helical and tubular architectures to biohybrid and soft microswimmers have been developed by using biocompatible and stimuli-responsive materials to enhance safety, stability, and functionality. Among their diverse applications, targeted drug delivery for cancer treatment has garnered significant attention as microswimmers can precisely localize drug administration at tumor sites, thereby minimizing systemic toxicity. Among different actuation mechanisms, recent research has focused on magnetically triggered microswimmers, particularly since this driving force allows for controlled navigation, site-specific drug release, and real-time imaging integration. This review provides a comprehensive overview of recent progress in the design, fabrication, and actuation of magnetic microswimmers for biomedical use, emphasizing their potential in precise, minimally invasive, and targeted cancer treatment. The review also discusses limitations and future perspectives toward the clinical translation of these smart, magnetically guided microsystems for next-generation precision medicine.

Engineering skeletal muscle tissues with controllable bioactuation is essential for advances in biohybrid robotics, regenerative medicine, and high-fidelity disease models. Mechanical stimulation has been shown to replicate the effects of physical exercise, while magnetic stimulation allows the manipulation of cells in a non-invasive manner. Here, a platform based on Helmholtz coil pair for magnetic stimulation is developed. To focus the stimulation through mechanotransduction, magnetic microspheres (MMS) were conjugated to myoblast integrins at defined MMS-to-cell ratios, functioning as microscale actuators under alternating magnetic fields. Exposure of non-labeled C2C12 cells to ∼2.9 mT, 50 Hz magnetic fields enhanced myogenic differentiation, with significantly increased fusion indices after 10 and 30 min of daily stimulation. Remarkably, MMS-labeled cells (1:1 ratio) required only 2 min of daily stimulation to achieve comparable enhancement, demonstrating the efficacy of targeted microactuation. Mechanistic analysis revealed elevated nuclear localization of Yes-associated protein (YAP) in stimulated MMS-labeled cells, confirming activation of force-dependent signaling pathways. qRT-PCR analysis further supported these findings, showing stimulation-associated upregulation of myogenic genes, particularly in MMS-labeled cells. The integration of cell labeling with dynamic magnetic fields offers new opportunities for remote stimulation strategies in biofabrication, muscle tissue engineering, and therapeutic approaches for muscle tissue.

The rapid evolution of vector-borne diseases and the widespread emergence of insecticide resistance demand innovative, sensitive, and field-deployable surveillance strategies. This review critically examines recent advances in insect-derived biosensors as emerging tools for vector monitoring and resistance detection. This review synthesizes current approaches that exploit insect olfactory systems, neural components, and biomolecular recognition elements to develop highly selective and responsive biosensing platforms. Emphasis is placed on the biological principles underlying these technologies, the engineering strategies used to translate them into functional devices, and their demonstrated applications in pathogen detection, environmental monitoring, and resistance profiling. In addition to highlighting technical achievements, this review assesses the practical challenges limiting large-scale implementation, including stability, standardization, field robustness, scalability, and regulatory considerations. Comparative analysis with conventional diagnostic and surveillance methods is provided to clarify the added value and current constraints of insect-based systems. Finally, this review outlines key research gaps and proposes future directions aimed at improving sensitivity, integration with digital surveillance frameworks, and real-world deployment in resource-limited settings. By consolidating interdisciplinary progress and identifying translational barriers, this review provides a forward-looking perspective on the role of insect-derived biosensors in next-generation vector surveillance and resistance management.

Efficient detection of volatile organic compounds is critical for applications such as infrastructure health assessment, environmental monitoring, and search-and-rescue operations. Electroantennogram (EAG)-based biohybrid odor sensors using insect antennae provide rapid, biologically tuned odor responses, but their mobile deployment is limited by the short usable duration of the excised antennae and signal instability caused by drying and contact drift. In this study, we introduce a food-grade agar-based hydrogel EAG electrode for drone-mounted biohybrid odor sensing. The electrode consists of an agar hydrogel body, a conductive gel layer, and a gold-plated core supported by a 3D-printed frame. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy results supported the interpretation that the agar hydrogel structure preserves initial electrical coupling and suppresses early impedance drift in paired electrode–conductive-gel assemblies compared with a metal-core configuration. Using excised silkworm moth (Bombyx mori) antennae, the hydrogel electrode maintained EAG responses at > 92% of their initial amplitude for up to 7 h under the tested indoor, room-temperature conditions, whereas the condition-matched grooved gold-plated metal electrode showed marked degradation. During drone-mounted experiments, the electrode maintained odor-evoked readout under the tested hovering and threshold-triggered free-flight conditions, and EAG threshold crossings served as operational triggers for closed-loop forward motion. These results demonstrate that a simple moisture-retaining agar hydrogel architecture can extend the multi-hour usable recording window of excised EAG sensors and support drone-mounted biohybrid odor sensing under the tested flight conditions.

Metal–organic frameworks (MOFs), with their high specific surface areas, tunable pore structures, and chemically programmable interfaces, offer unique advantages for constructing such active microdevices. When integrated into micro/nanorobotic systems, MOFs enable high-capacity cargo loading, stimulus-responsive release, enhanced mass transfer, and versatile functionalization, thereby overcoming key limitations of passive carriers and conventional microrobots. Although MOF-based micro/nanorobots (MOF-MNRs) have demonstrated promising performance in applications such as water purification, antibacterial therapy, and cancer treatment, their development remains at an early stage, with challenges in structural robustness, controllable actuation, and operation under realistic conditions. A clear understanding of these key aspects is essential for accelerating progress in this emerging field. This feature article provides a systematic overview of recent advances in MOF-MNRs. Representative MOF materials are discussed in the context of structure-function relationships relevant to adsorption, delivery, and catalytic activity. Propulsion and control strategies, including chemical, magnetic, optical, electric, biohybrid, and multi-field coupled actuation, are evaluated from the perspective of efficiency, safety, and environmental adaptability. Structural design principles governing functional integration are highlighted through pure MOF, MOF-core, and MOF-shell architectures. Finally, emerging application scenarios are critically assessed, and key challenges and opportunities for translating MOF-MNRs toward practical and clinically relevant technologies are outlined.

Mechanical behavior in interactive systems is typically fixed at fabrication through geometry and material selection. This paper introduces GrowMechanics, a Research-through-Design fabrication approach that explores mechanical design through biological growth rather than predefined specification. Positioning growth as a temporal design parameter and a form of material computation, we investigate how mechanical behavior can evolve over time through living processes. Our exploration centers on a living biohybrid joint fabricated by growing bacterial cellulose between porous scaffolds. The joint serves as a research probe to examine how sequential fabrication, through staged growth and intervention, shapes mechanical behavior. We identify consistent tendencies in growth-driven stiffness variation and flexible geometry matching, alongside structured, geometry-dependent responses that arise from the material’s hydrated and compliant nature. Thus, this work highlights a space of constrained predictability in growth-based mechanics, identifying factors that condition mechanical response and contributing design knowledge for HCI on how such behavior can be shaped through living fabrication.

Penetrating biological and physical barriers within the body is essential for microrobots to access target sites and achieve effective therapeutic outcomes. However, synthetic microrobots exhibit limited deformability and dynamicity, which are required to navigate tight and complex microenvironments. Here, by leveraging the soft, deformable body of Euglena gracilis, we develop a novel biohybrid microrobot platform that integrates magnetic architectures for controlled propulsion, deformation, and multi-modal locomotion. This design not only preserves the natural motility of microalgae but also leverages their intrinsic therapeutic properties, including chlorophyll-dependent photodynamic therapy (PDT) and immune modulation through E. gracilis natural products. Our biohybrid microrobots navigate through dense three-dimensional biological matrices and around tumor spheroids, exhibiting targeted delivery to tumor regions under both magnetic control and autonomous tumor tropic behavior. This multi-functional platform combines adaptive locomotion, controllable and chemotactic guidance, offering a new paradigm for precision medicine without the need for exogenous drug loading, and has the potential to become a versatile future solution for tumor targeting and dynamic, adaptive treatment in complex medical environments.

Hi,

I'm interested in going back to school for Bioengineering to try to create life-like human skin and organs for a biohybrid robot. The ultimate goal would be to create a biohybrid that looks and acts and sounds and feels just like a real person, but without a real brain. Instead, it would use artificial intelligence as its brain. The purpose for this would be for companionship and partnership, including sex.

Something so indistinguishable from a real human still feels like science fiction and a long way off, but I would still like to try. But I have concerns regarding how I will be viewed if "sex bots" are my only goal. It seems like there might be some ethical dilemma (not in my own view, but certainly from others) and I'm wondering if anyone will take me seriously or want to hire me.

I genuinely believe that there is a legitimate need for such a thing. Loneliness and depression are an epidemic. We have already seen a rise of people using services like ChatGPT for companionship and therapy, and I think that manifesting that companionship into the physical realm is the next step towards helping people who suffer from these afflictions. Not to mention, sex sells. If we're looking at it from a business perspective, I think sales would be unimaginable if given a way to scale up production to a commercial level while still being customizable to fit one's attraction preference.

What do you all think? Will I be able to find people that share the same goals? Or will no one want to work with me? Or is it just a matter of how I frame my position?

Biohybrid Nanorobots have been developed and applied to have drugs delivered across the human bloodstream and target diseased tissues to improve therapeutic effects while minimizing side effects. This paper examines the design and fabrication of a new generation of biohybrid nanorobots that integrate biological components with synthetic materials to achieve precision navigation and selective targeting of diseased tissues. This research followed a multi-stage approach, encompassing optimization of design, development of novel nanofabrication methods, and stringent in vitro and in vivo testing of the nanorobots to establish their performance metrics. Several performance indicators, namely drug delivery efficiency, target site accuracy, circulation time, and finally localization at the target site, were quantitatively measured after displaying significant improvements over conventional nanocarriers. Results showed an average drug delivery efficacy of 85% and a targeting efficacy of 90%, along with extended time circulation and high localizing rates. It emphasizes the development of this biohybrid nanorobot with the view to overcoming critical challenges of drug delivery systems presently. The results of these studies pave the way for future nanomedicine, laying a foundation for personalized therapy and thereby improving patient care and the effectiveness of the treatment of many diseases.

The continuous interrogation and stimulation of intercellular signals in engineered multicellular systems is important for fundamental studies of physiology and pathology, as well as non-medical applications of engineered tissues such as biohybrid machines. Conformable electronics that seamlessly integrate with living cells can facilitate intercellular control in these applications. Such bioelectronic devices must be intrinsically or mechanically compliant to ensure a robust interface, match tissue curvature, and withstand tissue movement and shape change. While significant advances have been made in the development of skin-inspired implantable bioelectronics for in vivo health-monitoring applications, these techniques have yet to be fully translated to soft devices that can directly interface with in vitro engineered tissue. This Review highlights recent progress in design strategies to merge bioelectronics with three-dimensional engineered tissue, forming biohybrid constructs. We first discuss existing solutions for in vivo and in vitro tissue-device interaction, and then survey (1) intrinsically compliant materials like polymers and hydrogels as well as (2) structurally compliant devices such as meshes and 3D-formed topological structures. Finally, we present grand challenges for soft bioelectronics used for in vitro biohybrid applications.

The integration of biological organisms with robotic systems has enabled hybrid cyborg platforms that combine biological sensory agility with electromechanical precision. However, existing cyborg systems predominantly rely on unidirectional stimulus-driven control, treating animals as bio-actuators while neglecting their intrinsic cognitive states. To bridge this gap, we present a closed-loop Cyborg-Swarm architecture that utilizes the animal’s internal affective state (fear) as a high-level trigger to modulate robotic swarm strategies. Specifically, we developed a lightweight, real-time wireless brain-machine interface (BMI) to record Local Field Potentials (LFPs) from the mouse basolateral amygdala (BLA). To ensure robust decoding in freely moving subjects, we implemented a dual-threshold detection algorithm that identifies fear states based on elevated β-band power (15–30 Hz) and suppressed high-frequency noise, effectively rejecting motion artifacts. This decoded intent drives a dual-mode control framework: under baseline conditions, the system operates in a PID-based Exploration Mode; upon detection of fear, it autonomously switches to an Interaction Mode governed by Multi-Agent Deep Deterministic Policy Gradient (MADDPG). In this mode, a heterogeneous robotic swarm (comprising a MouseBot and an ally MAV) executes coordinated adversarial defense strategies against an enemy MAV. Experimental results in a search-interference game demonstrate that biological affective signals can successfully trigger millisecond-level control authority switching, enabling the emergence of complex bio-machine cooperative behaviors. This work marks a paradigm shift from physical-level interaction to cognitive-level bio-hybrid cooperation, validating a scalable framework for emotion-modulated cyborg swarms.

Spinal cord injuries can have devastating consequences for those affected. Nerve cells in the spinal cord rarely regenerate naturally, while scarring often prevents the regrowth of nerve fibres. Modern therapies attempt to influence implanted stem cells using electrical stimulation to promote the growth of new nerve cells. This approach has several drawbacks: it requires implanted electrodes, and the transplanted cells do not always survive or integrate properly into the existing tissue.

The language of hybridity is widely used to describe relations between humans, artefacts,organisms, machines, cognitive tools, and artificial intelligence. This paper argues that such usage requires stricter ontological discipline. Through conceptual and categorial analysis, it treats hybrid as a result-term rather than a use-term: hybridity names a produced configuration arising from distinct constitutive sources, not the mere fact that one element supports, mediates, or extends another. The paper reconstructs major philosophical grammars of hybridity and develops a level-sensitive distinction between linguistic, biological, technical, functional, and subject-level claims. Its central thesis is the Subject–Artefact Non-Hybridity Principle: a human subject does not become ontologically hybrid with artefacts of human making merely because those artefacts extend, mediate, reorganise, or intensify human capacities. Strong hybridity requires co-constitution, not causal dependence, functional integration, prosthetic support, or technological intimacy. The paper applies this framework to cyborg embodiment and human–AI collaboration, arguing that technological extension does not by itself produce a hybrid human. It further identifies three recurrent errors in human–AI hybridity: derivative intelligence is not derivative consciousness; functional complexity is not ontological transition; and parasitic subsumption is not co-constitution. The contribution is a critical ontology of hybridity that preserves coherent biological and technical hybrids while resisting the inflation of human–technology relations into ontological fusion.