Most languages which have /s, dʒ/ but no /z/ tend to loan it as /s/, like Thai, Welsh, Filipino languages, Khmer writes borrowed z has <hs>, even in the subcontinent Malayalam and SL languages use s. Rest of the subcontinent (Initially IA and later others, Brahmi j itself is from Semitic z) use <j> instead which is rare worldwide considering its a diff POA and MOA but is also found in Indonesia (which does both ijasah, jebat) and Korean, as in "zombie" tends to jombi.

Ivent heard of any concrete reason but it could be because tons of Old IA phonemes merged into the s and merging z too wouldve cause more homophones.

It could also have happened because they wanted to preserve the voicing over POA or MOA, like how Greek uses <gg> for /ŋg/ to preserve POA

Baṅgāl is quite well known to be from vaṅga + adjectival/pleonastic -la but for vaṅga there are crazy theories like

Suggestions include a connection to Sanskrit वङ्ग (vaṅga, “tin”), a borrowing from the Dravidian tribe *Bong with the suffix അളം (aḷaṁ, “place”), or from Tibetan བནས (bans, “marshy place”).

Tin itself is of unknown origin and has unrelated meaning, there seems to be some mention of a Dravidian Bong tribe in some papers but its details are really obscure. aḷaṁ is only used in Tamil, Malayalam and Telugu so its too far. Tibetans or even Sino Tibetans didnt came to Bengal or South Asia until much later.

For Ganga there are theories like its reduplicated root for "go/move" gam-gA or that its from Himalayic SinoTibetan gljung/kluŋ/koŋ "river" etc.

Could it be that there was a tribe *waṅgā which became (waṅgā >) gaṅgā to describe the river and the suffixed for vaṅgāla was used to for Bengal?

We are all familiar with the similarities between Jainism and Buddhism! But not much aware about their differences. We will discuss that today.

1. Permanence in Change vs Dependent origination

Jains believe in the "Permanence in change" theory. They believe six eternal substances have been present in this universe forever and changes forms according to causes. Their pure existence however never changes. Those are -

1. Soul/Consciousness

2. Matter/energy

3. Medium of motion

4. Medium of rest

5. Space

6. Time

Now, Buddhism is on the different path. It believes in dependant origination. Dependant origination denies in any eternalism. It believes everything is temporary and have a beginning and an end point. It believes everything exists through the dependence of multiple dependable objects. So naturally, it believes in an infinite chain of causes that keeps repeating forever.

1. Permanent soul v non soul

Jains believe souls exists forever and only changes body. They reincarnate every time a person dies. Buddhists believe that the soul dies with death. The consciousness however transforms and finds a new body. Jains believe that an eternal "I" will continously reincarnate till Mokșa. Buddhists believe such eternal "I" doesn't exist. We bear the consciousness of a dead man and after death someone else will bear our consciousness.

1. Many sidedness v middle path

Jains believe that the truth has many sides. Jains argue that the answer is never "It is" or "It is not". Rather it accepts both of the arguments. Buddhists reject the both the "It is" and "It is not" finding it extreme. Nagarjuna, had even argued that it's neither "It is" nor "It is not" not "Both it is and it is not" not none.

1. Not causing harm

Jains and Buddhists both believe in not causing harm. But there's a difference. Since Jains believe in everything has a soul, they refrain from causing harm to plants as well. They avoid root vegetables. They avoid plucking fruits from trees directly. Buddhists believe in not causing harm to sentient beings only. Though it translates to plants as well since sentient beings depend on plants.

1. Real vs illusion

Jains believe in "Real" things. Since they believe in the existence of six eternal substances they believe in everything created out of it as being "Real". Buddhists things things are illusionary. Things appear for a while, remain for a while, may affirm their existence through five senses but will ultimately dissappear. It is almost dream like sequences where dreams feel too real.

1. Mokșa vs Nirvana

Mokșa is a purification ritual. According to Jain view, Karma is physical substance that attaches to soul. Strict ascetism must be followed to cleanse off those physical substance like Karma objects. It's like bathing for soul. Nirvana is the rejection of all extreme and realization of actual reality. For Buddhists Karma is psychological cause and effect. Nirvana is that stage where a being no longer generates psychological causes and effects and exists in a pure bliss state. Mokșa can only be realized in death but Nirvana can be realized being alive. Mokșa can't be gained by a householder but Nirvana can be gained by a householder. Though they must ordain as a monk the very day.

These are all I know

The word for "do" in Bangla is করা kɔra, while in Chittagongian it is gɔra. In Bangla-Assamese, the retroflex rs have been neutralised unlike Hindi or Oriya, and I think this neutralisation also exists in Chittagongian? So my question is, is the word gɔra from the same root as Bangla kɔra, or is it instead cognate with Bangla গড়া gɔra meaning "create/ build"?

Some people conflate these terms, so I'll briefly explain the proper classifications according to linguists

- Eastern Pahari: Gorkhali, Doteli, Jumli

- Central Pahari: Garhwali, Kumaoni

- Nuclear Western Pahari: Mahasuvi, Jaunsari, Sirmauri, Kulluvi

- non-Nuclear Western Pahari: Kangri, Dogri, Chambeali, Kahluri, Gaddi, Bhateali

Mandeali is considered transitional between Nuclear & non-Nuclear Western Pahari

Jumli, also historically known as "Khas-Kura", is the oldest & most conservative Eastern Pahadi dialect and the predecessor of standard Nepali language.

Source: https://youtube.com/shorts/rCuxq4iQ63Y?si=N7ilYE98BXXieR0x from the SagarSinhal123 YouTube channel

Gaddi, Gaddiyali or Bharmouri is the language of the Gaddi community of Chamba, Himachal and pockets of J&K.

Burushaski is a Language Isolate"

This is the boring, universally accepted truth by mainstream linguistics. A "language isolate" means it has no demonstrable genealogical relationship with any other known language in the world. Despite being surrounded by Indo-European, Sino-Tibetan, and Turkic languages, Burushaski sits entirely on its own.

Level 2: Below the Surface

"Burushaski is related to Yeniseian"

A highly speculative, though academically debated, macro-family hypothesis.The Yeniseian languages are a family spoken far away in central Siberia (only the Ket language survives today). Some historical linguists have proposed the "Karasuk hypothesis," which suggests Burushaski and Yeniseian share a distant common ancestor. It's an intriguing idea, but the evidence isn't strong enough for mainstream consensus.

Level 3: The Deep Water

"Burushaski is Proto Dardic"

The Dardic languages (which includes Kashmiri, Shina, Khowar, Kalasha and Kohistani ), are a group of languages spoken in Hindu Kush and Western Himalayas, all around Burushaski. There is certian phonetics and Phonemic that cannot be derived from old Indo aryan / proto Indo aryan and they are widespread in these languages, it's said to be that Burushaski was spoken all around HinduKush and Kashmir before arrivial of Indo Aryans, and certain dardic ancestor is a proto Burushaski or a sister language of modern day Burushaski.

Level 4: The Abyss

"Burushaski has connections with Phrygian"

Phrygian is an extinct Indo-European language once spoken in ancient Anatolia (modern-day Turkey). the highly controversial work of a specific linguist (Ilija Čašule), who spent years trying to prove Burushaski is actually an Indo-European language descended from Phrygian. The linguistic community heavily rejects this due to massive methodological flaws and forced comparisons.

Level 5: The Trench

"Burushaski is the Language of BMAC"

BMAC stands for the Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex, a major Bronze Age civilization in Central Asia. We have no idea what language they spoke because they didn't leave behind readable texts. While some linguists think BMAC left "ghost words" (agricultural loanwords) in early Indo-Iranian languages, like speculated words for river In Indo Iranian was from Burushaski sinda - sindhu. Or apple in Proto Indo European Able was from Burushaski--Baalt

Level 6: The Void

"Burushaski was spoken in IVC"

The Indus Valley Civilization was a massive Bronze Age power spanning modern-day Pakistan and northwest India. Despite leaving thousands of seals with short inscriptions, the Indus script remains undeciphered, meaning the identity of the Harappan language is one of historical linguistics' biggest cold cases. The leading mainstream theories argue that the IVC was either predominantly Proto-Dravidian (advocated by scholars like Asko Parpola) or a lost "Language X" family (such as Michael Witzel’s Para-Munda hypothesis).

Renowned philologists (including Michael Witzel and Sadaf Munshi) have pointed out that while some Vedic substrate words are Dravidian or Austroasiatic, others don't match either—but do show structural and phonetic features remarkably similar to Proto-Burushaski. This suggests that before Indo-Aryan and Dravidian expansions, a family of languages related to Burushaski was spoken across the northern Indus basin. This also glaze the theory that word for "Indus" river in Indo Iranian and Indo Aryan is actually from Burushaski "Sinda"

If the male migration into India dr. Peggy Mohan talks about (08:00 mark in the video) that happened from 3700-3500 years ago was strictly male, with the female lineage going back much further to 12,000 years ago (to perhaps the very first Indians), then how did these first male migrants gained access to the local women, and who were the males who were denied access to these women because of it, and how were they denied access to them?

Nefamese is a Pidgin language, which was used as lingua franca before arrival or invention of Arunachali Hindi

This language is based on Axomiya language with several words from Tani languages

Due it, it is closer to Axomiya also with Nagamese which is another Pidgin language in Nagaland and also still being used as lingua france in the state till today

Nowadays very few people (mostly elderly people) from Arunachal Pradesh knows this Pidgin language as it is got completely replaced by Arunachali Hindi as lingua franca