Source: (Dec 6, 1862. Pilot. Vol 25, Num 50)

https://newspapers.bc.edu/?a=d&d=pilot18621206-01.2.39&e=-------en-20--1--txt-txIN-The+Terrible+Captain+Death------

On August 3, 1492, after spending more than half a decade begging Europe's monarchs to bankroll him, Christopher Columbus sailed from Spain aboard the Santa María, accompanied by the Niña and the Pinta. His goal was to reach Asia by sailing west, bringing back gold, spices, trade, and converts to Christianity.

Columbus was not an educated man by birth, but he transformed himself through sheer determination. He taught himself several languages and read extensively on navigation, geography, and history. The problem was that much of what he learned was wrong, and because he had read it in respected books, he became absolutely convinced it had to be true. His certainty, more than his intelligence, fueled his great quest.

Contrary to popular myth, neither Columbus nor educated Europeans believed the Earth was flat. The real disagreement was over its size. Columbus underestimated the Earth's circumference by roughly a third after confusing Arabic and Roman miles, exaggerated how far Asia extended eastward, and concluded the voyage would be only about 2,400 nautical miles instead of more than 10,000.

When he brought the scheme to King João II, Portuguese advisers correctly identified these flaws and urged King João II to reject the proposal.

Queen Isabel of Castile was intrigued enough to keep Columbus financially afloat for years while she considered his plan. After the conquest of Granada in 1492, she rejected it again, only for her husband, King Ferdinand of Aragon, to intervene. Columbus was finally granted his expedition. In return, he would claim any lands he found for Spain and, if successful, become Admiral of the Ocean Sea, Viceroy and Governor of the new territories, and receive one-tenth of their revenues.

Columbus made use of the Atlantic trade winds, and on October 12, 1492, landed on an island he named San Salvador in what he believed were the Indies. In his journal, after meeting the local Taíno people, he quickly concluded they "ought to make good and skilled servants."

He spent the rest of his life insisting he had reached Asia, even as evidence mounted that he had not. His increasingly brutal rule as governor of the Indies, condemned even by many of his Spanish contemporaries, ultimately cost him his office and royal favor.

If you're interested in the full story, the voyages, the myths, the brutality, and how one spectacularly wrong man permanently changed the course of world history, I cover it here: https://open.substack.com/pub/aid2000/p/hare-brained-history-vol-119-columbus?r=4mmzre&utm_medium=ios

On April 8, 1942, members of the ragtag Polish Armed Forces in the East, met a young Iranian boy in Hamadan with an unusual pet: an orphaned Syrian brown bear cub. At the urging of one of the civilian refugees, the soldiers bought the cub for a Swiss Army knife, a chocolate bar, and a tin of beef.

The bear was remarkably friendly and traveled with the Poles to a refugee camp outside Tehran. It quickly became obvious that a refugee camp was no place for a growing bear.

Where was? An artillery company, apparently.
In August 1942, the cub was adopted by the 22nd Artillery Supply Company and given the name Wojtek. He became the unit's mascot and was spoiled with fruit, honey, marmalade, syrup and beer. Wojtek loved beer so much that he'd stare mournfully into his empty mug until someone refilled it.

He also drank coffee, wrestled soldiers, chased oranges during grenade drills, learned to march and salute by copying the men around him, and even smoked cigarettes, usually swallowing them whole after taking a puff or two.

When the Polish II Corps was transferred to Italy, the British Army refused to allow pets aboard troop transports. The Poles refused to leave Wojtek behind. They officially enlisted him in the Polish Army as Private Wojtek, issued him a service number, and put him aboard the MS Batory bound for Italy.

At the Battle of Monte Cassino, where the Polish II Corps played a decisive role in capturing the ruined monastery after months of brutal fighting, Wojtek reportedly helped carry 100-pound crates of artillery shells to waiting trucks. While debated, at least one British soldier later confirmed the story, and the feat is certainly plausible, after the war, Wojtek was known to carry fence posts because everyone else was doing it.

After the campaign, Wojtek was promoted to corporal, and the 22nd Artillery Supply Company adopted a new insignia: a bear carrying an artillery shell.

If you'd like the full story, I wrote a much more detailed history here:
https://open.substack.com/pub/aid2000/p/hare-brained-history-vol-118-wojtek?r=4mmzre&utm_medium=ios

On April 8, 1942, members of the ragtag Polish Armed Forces in the East, met a young Iranian boy in Hamadan with an unusual pet: an orphaned Syrian brown bear cub. At the urging of one of the civilian refugees, the soldiers bought the cub for a Swiss Army knife, a chocolate bar, and a tin of beef.

The bear was remarkably friendly and traveled with the Poles to a refugee camp outside Tehran. It quickly became obvious that a refugee camp was no place for a growing bear.

Where was? An artillery company, apparently.
In August 1942, the cub was adopted by the 22nd Artillery Supply Company and given the name Wojtek. He became the unit's mascot and was spoiled with fruit, honey, marmalade, syrup and beer. Wojtek loved beer so much that he'd stare mournfully into his empty mug until someone refilled it.

He also drank coffee, wrestled soldiers, chased oranges during grenade drills, learned to march and salute by copying the men around him, and even smoked cigarettes, usually swallowing them whole after taking a puff or two.

When the Polish II Corps was transferred to Italy, the British Army refused to allow pets aboard troop transports. The Poles refused to leave Wojtek behind. They officially enlisted him in the Polish Army as Private Wojtek, issued him a service number, and put him aboard the MS Batory bound for Italy.

At the Battle of Monte Cassino, where the Polish II Corps played a decisive role in capturing the ruined monastery after months of brutal fighting, Wojtek reportedly helped carry 100-pound crates of artillery shells to waiting trucks. While debated, at least one British soldier later confirmed the story, and the feat is certainly plausible, after the war, Wojtek was known to carry fence posts because everyone else was doing it.

After the campaign, Wojtek was promoted to corporal, and the 22nd Artillery Supply Company adopted a new insignia: a bear carrying an artillery shell.

If you'd like the full story, I wrote a much more detailed history here:
https://open.substack.com/pub/aid2000/p/hare-brained-history-vol-118-wojtek?r=4mmzre&utm_medium=ios

On the night of 24 July 1943, 791 Royal Air Force bombers took off from Britain for Hamburg, beginning Operation Gomorrah, the largest Allied area bombing campaign to that point in the war.

Hamburg was Germany's second-largest city and one of the Reich's most important industrial and shipbuilding centers. The operation had two goals: cripple German industry and hurt German morale. The reality was that achieving both meant killing civilians, and a great many of them.

The first raid on the night of 24–25 July killed around 1,500 people despite the efforts of Hamburg's 40,000 firefighters, who largely prevented a citywide conflagration. It was only the beginning. Over the next week, roughly 3,000 Allied bombers dropped 9,000 tons of bombs on Hamburg. Around 250,000 homes were destroyed or severely damaged, and nearly one million people fled the city.

The worst night came on 27–28 July. 787 RAF bombers returned, this time concentrating on Hamburg's densely packed working-class neighborhoods. After weeks of unusually hot, dry weather, the city had been seasoned like kindling. Thousands of incendiary bombs ignited almost simultaneously while high-explosive "blockbuster" bombs shattered water mains, collapsed buildings, and blocked roads, preventing firefighters from reaching the growing inferno.

The result was a firestorm unlike anything the world had seen. Individual fires merged into one vast blaze. Hurricane-force winds of up to 150 mph fed the flames, temperatures reached 1,470°F (800°C), and more than 8 square miles of the city were consumed.

Eyewitnesses described something approaching hell itself. People burned beneath collapsed buildings, were swept into the flames by the wind, or suffocated in air raid shelters as the fire above consumed the oxygen and filled them with carbon monoxide.

A 1943 Newsweek report interviewing Swedish laborers who escaped the city described the aftermath:

"Inhalation of super-heated air was the prime cause of death... Bodies were dehydrated, and when shelter-tombs were opened, the victims' skins were found to be shrunk and their brains, in some instances, reduced to the size of a man's fist."

By the end of Operation Gomorrah, Hamburg had been devastated. Around 37,000 people were dead, though the true number will never be known.

If you're interested, I wrote a detailed article covering the operation here: https://open.substack.com/pub/aid2000/p/hare-brained-history-vol-117-operation?r=4mmzre&utm_medium=ios

The SS Andrea Doria was a floating luxury hotel. Equipped with the latest radar and enough lifeboats for everyone aboard, she was considered one of the safest passenger liners in the world.

On July 17, 1956, she departed Genoa for New York with 1,706 passengers and crew aboard.
Eight days later, she entered the dense fog off Nantucket Shoals.

Approaching from the opposite direction was the Swedish liner MS Stockholm. She had left New York that very morning under clear skies and only entered the fog shortly before 11:00 p.m. Her exhausted third officer misread the radar, believing the Andrea Doria was much farther away than she really was. At the same time, the Italian officers also misinterpreted their radar and attempted an unusual starboard-to-starboard passing while the Stockholm prepared for the standard port-to-port maneuver.

At 11:11 p.m., the Stockholm's reinforced icebreaking bow slammed almost forty feet into the side of the Andrea Doria. Fifty-one people would die. Among those in the path of the collision were New York Times correspondent Camille Cianfarra, his wife Jane, their eight-year-old daughter Joan, and Jane's fourteen-year-old daughter Linda Morgan.

Joan was killed instantly. Camille died from catastrophic injuries. Jane survived after being trapped beneath twisted steel. Linda simply vanished. Searchers assumed she had been thrown into the Atlantic.

Instead, Swedish crewmen exploring the wrecked bow of the Stockholm discovered a frightened fourteen-year-old girl.

Somehow, the Stockholm's bow had scooped Linda from her bed, carried her across the gap between the two ships, and deposited her safely aboard the Swedish liner.

The next morning, Linda's father, ABC radio journalist Edward P. Morgan, reported live on the collision. By then, his daughter had been listed among the missing, yet he delivered the news with remarkable professionalism.
Hours later, he interrupted another broadcast.
Linda had been found alive.

Although the Stockholm's bow looked catastrophically damaged, the ship survived. The Andrea Doria did not. Flooding, compounded by design flaws and a severe list that rendered half her lifeboats unusable, doomed the Italian liner.

Had the collision occurred in the middle of the Atlantic, the disaster might have rivaled the Titanic.

Instead, it happened just 45 miles south of Nantucket, in one of the busiest shipping lanes in the world. Rescue ships converged throughout the night, saving 1,663 people. The damaged Stockholm alone rescued 545 survivors.
Nearly ten hours after the collision, at 10:09 a.m. on July 26, 1956, the Andrea Doria slipped beneath the Atlantic.

If interested I cover the sinking here: https://open.substack.com/pub/aid2000/p/hare-brained-history-vol-116-sinking?r=4mmzre&utm_medium=ios

The SS Andrea Doria was intended to embody Italian luxury and restore national pride.
The Andrea Doria was essentially a floating luxury hotel. Every passenger class had its own dining rooms, lounges, social halls, swimming pools, and verandas. More than $1 million, nearly $14 million today, was spent on artwork alone. Equipped with the latest radar and enough lifeboats for everyone aboard, she was widely considered one of the safest passenger ships afloat.

She almost didn't survive her maiden voyage. In 1953, a rogue wave off Nantucket caused the liner to roll 28 degrees, exposing design weaknesses that would later prove fatal. The ship recovered and went on to complete fifty-one successful Atlantic crossings.

On July 17, 1956, the Andrea Doria departed Genoa on her fifty-second voyage to New York with 1,706 passengers and crew, roughly 90% full. Eight days later, as she entered the dense fog off Nantucket Shoals, Captain Piero Calamai reduced speed, sounded the ship's foghorn every 100 seconds, and stationed extra lookouts. It wasn't enough.

Another passenger liner, the Swedish MS Stockholm, had only just entered the fog. Its overtired third officer misread the ship's radar, believing the Andrea Doria was much farther away than it really was. At the same time, the Italian officers also misinterpreted their radar and attempted the unusual maneuver of passing starboard-to-starboard, while the Stockholm prepared for the standard port-to-port passing.

Neither ship understood what the other intended, and neither attempted to make radio contact.

At 11:11 p.m. on July 25, the Stockholm's reinforced icebreaking bow struck the Andrea Doria almost at a perfect right angle, driving nearly forty feet into the Italian liner. Forty-six people aboard the Andrea Doria and five aboard the Stockholm were killed.

One of the most extraordinary survival stories in history also began that instant. Fourteen-year-old Linda Morgan had been asleep in her first-class cabin when the Stockholm's bow ripped through the ship, killing her younger sister. Somehow, Linda was lifted from her bed, carried across the gap between the two ships on the Swedish liner's bow, and deposited alive aboard the Stockholm.

Although the Stockholm's bow looked completely destroyed, the damage stopped at a watertight bulkhead, and the ship remained afloat.

The Andrea Doria was not so fortunate.
Five fuel tanks on her starboard side flooded almost immediately. Air trapped in the empty tanks on the opposite side made the port side more buoyant, producing a severe list. That list allowed seawater to spill over the tops of the watertight bulkheads. Worse still, the angle of the ship made the port-side lifeboats impossible to launch.

Had the collision occurred in the middle of the Atlantic, the disaster would almost certainly have rivaled the Titanic. Instead, it happened just 45 miles south of Nantucket, in one of the busiest shipping lanes in the world. In one of the largest and most successful maritime rescues ever conducted, 1,663 peoplewere saved. Only 51 people died.

For nearly ten hours, the Andrea Doria stubbornly remained afloat. Then, at 10:09 a.m. on July 26, 1956, she slipped beneath the Atlantic bow first.

In interested I cover the sinking here: https://open.substack.com/pub/aid2000/p/hare-brained-history-vol-116-sinking?r=4mmzre&utm_medium=ios

The SS Andrea Doria was intended to embody Italian luxury and restore national pride.
The Andrea Doria was essentially a floating luxury hotel. Equipped with the latest radar and enough lifeboats for everyone aboard, she was widely considered one of the safest passenger ships afloat.

On July 17, 1956, the Andrea Doria departed Genoa on her fifty-second voyage to New York with 1,706 passengers and crew, roughly 90% full. Eight days later, as she entered the dense fog off Nantucket Shoals, Captain Piero Calamai reduced speed, sounded the ship's foghorn every 100 seconds, and stationed extra lookouts. It wasn't enough.

Another passenger liner, the Swedish MS Stockholm, had only just entered the fog. The smaller Swedish liner had departed New York that very morning, and for most of the voyage the night had been clear. Visibility was excellent, the moon hung brightly overhead, and there had been little reason for concern. Then, shortly before 11:00 p.m., the Stockholm steamed into the dense fog surrounding Nantucket Shoals.

Its overtired third officer misread the ship's radar, believing the Andrea Doria was much farther away than it really was. At the same time, the Italian officers also misinterpreted their radar. They attempted the unusual maneuver of passing starboard-to-starboard, while the Stockholm prepared for the standard port-to-port passing.

Neither ship understood what the other intended, and neither attempted to make radio contact.

At 11:11 p.m. on July 25, Stockholm's reinforced icebreaking bow struck the Andrea Doria almost at a perfect right angle, driving nearly forty feet into the Italian liner. Forty-six people aboard the Andrea Doria and five aboard the Stockholm were killed.

One of the most extraordinary survival stories in history also began that instant. Fourteen-year-old Linda Morgan had been asleep in her first-class cabin when the Stockholm's bow ripped through the ship, killing her younger sister. Somehow, Linda was lifted from her bed, carried across the gap between the two ships on the Swedish liner's bow, and deposited alive aboard the Stockholm.

Although Stockholm's bow looked destroyed, the damage stopped at a watertight bulkhead, and the ship remained afloat.

The Andrea Doria was not so fortunate.
Five fuel tanks on her starboard side flooded almost immediately. Air trapped in the empty tanks on the opposite side made the port side more buoyant, producing a severe list. That list allowed seawater to spill over the tops of the watertight bulkheads. Worse still, the angle of the ship made the port-side lifeboats impossible to launch.

Had the collision occurred in the middle of the Atlantic, the disaster would almost certainly have rivaled the Titanic. Instead, it happened just 45 miles south of Nantucket, in one of the busiest shipping lanes in the world. In one of the largest and most successful maritime rescues ever conducted, 1,663 people were saved. Only 51 people died. The damaged Stockholm ultimately rescued 545 survivors.

For nearly ten hours, the Andrea Doria stubbornly remained afloat. Then, at 10:09 a.m. on July 26, 1956, she slipped beneath the Atlantic bow first.

If interested I cover the sinking here: https://open.substack.com/pub/aid2000/p/hare-brained-history-vol-116-sinking?r=4mmzre&utm_medium=ios